Life of Ali ibn Abi Talib (ALLAH Bless With Him)
Quick Facts
|
Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: علی بن ابی طالب) born in 600 AD and assassinated in January 31, 661 AD was a companion (Sahabi) and the son-in-law of the Prophet Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him). He played a major role in early Islamic history as the fourth of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 656 – 661 CE when he became the fourth Muslim Caliph following Uthman ibn Affan death.
Birth of Ali
Ali was the son of Abu Talib, a prominent Quraish chief and custodian of the Holy Kaaba. Abu Talib was so called because he was the father of "Talib", the eldest brother of Ali. The real name of Abu Talib was Abd Manaf. He was however more popularly known by his surname than by his real name. Abu Talib was the son of Abdul Muttalib. Abdul Muttalib was also a surname, his real name being Shaybah. Abdul Muttalib was the son of Hashim. Hashim was a great man of the line, and his descendants came to be known as Hashimites.
The mother of Ali was Fatima. She was the daughter of Asad who was a son of Hashim. Fatima was a cousin of Abu Talib. Thus both the father and mother of Ali were Hashimites, and that was a great honor.
The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was the son to Abdullah who was the son of Abdul Muttalib. Abdullah and Abu Talib were real brothers. Abu Talib was thus the real paternal uncle of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) of Islam. Ali was the first cousin of the Holy Prophet. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Ali had a common grandfather Abdul Muttalib.
Abdul Muttalib was the son of Hashim who was the son of Abd Manaf who was the son of Qussay who was the son of Murrah, who was the son of Kaab, who was the son of Luayy, who was the son of Ghalib, who was the son of Fihr, who was the son of Malik who was the son of Nadr, who was the son of Kananah. Beyond Kananah the ancestry extended to Ismail, and Ibrahim, who flourished some 2500 years earlier.
The exact date of the birth of Ali is not known with any degree of certainty. According to traditions, Ali was born on the thirteenth of "Rajab" in the 28th year of the Elephant Era corresponds to 23 October The Elephant Era according to the annals of Arabia commenced when Abraha the Christian Viceroy of Yemen invaded Makkah with the intention of destroying the Kaaba, and shifting the center of pilgrimage to Yemen. The invasion failed and the Christian army had to beat a retreat without achieving its object. That marked the retreat of Christianity from the heartland of Arabia and paved the way for the rise of Islam. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was born in the Year of the Elephant. According to scholars the Year of the Elephant corresponds to the year 571 of the Christian era. On this basis, the year of the birth of Ali would have to be placed around 599 or 600 C.E. Anyhow Ali was at the junction of the two centuries, the sixth and the seventh.
Ali was born under unusual circumstances. On the thirteenth of the holy month of "Rajab", Fatima, the mother of Ali, visited the Kaaba for performing the pilgrimage. During the course of the pilgrimage while circumambulating the Kaaba, Fatima felt the pangs of childbirth. She retired to a secluded place in the precincts of the Holy Kaaba, and there Ali was born. Ali had thus the unique honor of being born in the House of God. This unparalleled honor has endowed Ali with a halo of sanctity, which has become the subject of many legends. A hundred years later, Zain-ul-Abidin a grandson of Ali (son of Husain) met as Arab woman at Najaf who told him that her grandmother had helped on the occasion of the birth of Ali. She narrated that according to the account of her grandmother, the child was beautiful, a smile played on his lips, it did not cry like other children, and its birth did not cause any pain to his mother.
Fatima wanted to name the child "Asad" after the name of her father. Abu Talib wanted to name him Zaid. When the mother and the child came home, the Holy Prophet, and Khadija came to see the newborn child. Since his birth, the child had not opened his eyes, and that worried Fatima and Abu Talib. As the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) took the child in his lap he opened his eyes. The first person that Ali saw after his birth was the Holy Prophet. When the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was asked whether he approved of the child being named as Asad or Zaid, he said that as the child was born in the House of God, he should be named Ali, the word Ali being a derivative of ALLAH. Ali had thus the distinction of being named after ALLAH. No person before him had ever been so named. The name acquired further sanctity as it was proposed by the Holy Prophet.
The mother of Ali was Fatima. She was the daughter of Asad who was a son of Hashim. Fatima was a cousin of Abu Talib. Thus both the father and mother of Ali were Hashimites, and that was a great honor.
The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was the son to Abdullah who was the son of Abdul Muttalib. Abdullah and Abu Talib were real brothers. Abu Talib was thus the real paternal uncle of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) of Islam. Ali was the first cousin of the Holy Prophet. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Ali had a common grandfather Abdul Muttalib.
Abdul Muttalib was the son of Hashim who was the son of Abd Manaf who was the son of Qussay who was the son of Murrah, who was the son of Kaab, who was the son of Luayy, who was the son of Ghalib, who was the son of Fihr, who was the son of Malik who was the son of Nadr, who was the son of Kananah. Beyond Kananah the ancestry extended to Ismail, and Ibrahim, who flourished some 2500 years earlier.
The exact date of the birth of Ali is not known with any degree of certainty. According to traditions, Ali was born on the thirteenth of "Rajab" in the 28th year of the Elephant Era corresponds to 23 October The Elephant Era according to the annals of Arabia commenced when Abraha the Christian Viceroy of Yemen invaded Makkah with the intention of destroying the Kaaba, and shifting the center of pilgrimage to Yemen. The invasion failed and the Christian army had to beat a retreat without achieving its object. That marked the retreat of Christianity from the heartland of Arabia and paved the way for the rise of Islam. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was born in the Year of the Elephant. According to scholars the Year of the Elephant corresponds to the year 571 of the Christian era. On this basis, the year of the birth of Ali would have to be placed around 599 or 600 C.E. Anyhow Ali was at the junction of the two centuries, the sixth and the seventh.
Ali was born under unusual circumstances. On the thirteenth of the holy month of "Rajab", Fatima, the mother of Ali, visited the Kaaba for performing the pilgrimage. During the course of the pilgrimage while circumambulating the Kaaba, Fatima felt the pangs of childbirth. She retired to a secluded place in the precincts of the Holy Kaaba, and there Ali was born. Ali had thus the unique honor of being born in the House of God. This unparalleled honor has endowed Ali with a halo of sanctity, which has become the subject of many legends. A hundred years later, Zain-ul-Abidin a grandson of Ali (son of Husain) met as Arab woman at Najaf who told him that her grandmother had helped on the occasion of the birth of Ali. She narrated that according to the account of her grandmother, the child was beautiful, a smile played on his lips, it did not cry like other children, and its birth did not cause any pain to his mother.
Fatima wanted to name the child "Asad" after the name of her father. Abu Talib wanted to name him Zaid. When the mother and the child came home, the Holy Prophet, and Khadija came to see the newborn child. Since his birth, the child had not opened his eyes, and that worried Fatima and Abu Talib. As the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) took the child in his lap he opened his eyes. The first person that Ali saw after his birth was the Holy Prophet. When the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was asked whether he approved of the child being named as Asad or Zaid, he said that as the child was born in the House of God, he should be named Ali, the word Ali being a derivative of ALLAH. Ali had thus the distinction of being named after ALLAH. No person before him had ever been so named. The name acquired further sanctity as it was proposed by the Holy Prophet.
Years of childhood
The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was a posthumous child, and he was born after the death of his father Abdullah. He lost his mother Aamina when he was hardly six years old. Thereafter he became a ward of his grandfather Abdul Muttalib. He lost his grandfather when he nine years old. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) next lived with his Uncle Abu Talib who a real brother of his father. In the house of Abu Talib, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was well cared for. Abu Talib loved the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) more than his own sons. Fatima the wife of Abu Talib gave the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) the love of mother. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) accompanied Abu Talib on his trade journeys. It was under the loving care of Abu Talib and Fatima that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) grew into manhood. At the age of twenty-five, some time around 596 C.E., the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) married a rich lady Khadija and shifted to her house. There was not much distance between the two houses and the two families visited each other frequently. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) cold never forget the love that Abu Talib and Fatima had born for him. Even after his marriage, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) regarded himself as a member of the family of Abu Talib. In this context, it is probable that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Khadija would have rejoiced at the birth of Ali and would have some function to celebrate the occasion.
No detailed account of the early years of the childhood of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) is available, and where the source books are silent the story has been reconstructed on the basis of the laws of plausibility and probability. It was a custom of the Quraish of Makkah that they entrusted their new born sons to the care of foster parents belonging to the tribes of the desert, and it was in the open air of the desert that the young sons of the Quraish were bred during the first few years of their childhood. We know that the Holy Prophet spent the first five years of his childhood with his foster parents in the desert. We do not know who the foster parents of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) were. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) had a strong constitution, and after the Holy Prophet, he was the most eloquent person among the Quraish. This provides evidence to the effect that like the Holy Prophet, Ali spent the first few years of his childhood in the desert. It appears that the necessary arrangements in this behalf were made by the Holy Prophet, and he paid for the maintenance of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in the desert.
As the Holy Prophet had arranged for the stay of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in the desert, it appears that on return from the desert, the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was brought to the house of the Holy Prophet, and he arranged some function to mark the occasion which was attended by Abu Talib and his family, and other close relatives. The Holy Prophet had looked after the young Ali since his birth and he developed a great liking for him. It was against this background that the Holy Prophet requested Abu Talib that Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) be entrusted to his care, and be allowed to live with him as a member of his family. Abu Talib agreed as he felt that the Holy Prophet would look after Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in a much better way than he could.
Most of the writers have expressed the view that the Holy Prophet took over the responsibility for the maintenance of Ali to provide financial relief to Abu Talib whose financial position had grown weak. It is difficult to accept this view. Abu Talib was a Quraish chief and he enjoyed reputation as such and commanded great influence. Like the other Quraish he undertook trading activities. There is no evidence to the effect that he was involved in any financial difficulty. Abu Talib had really any financial difficulty, the Holy Prophet who was in affluent circumstances could have supplemented the financial resources of Abu Talib by providing financial assistance as a son would help a father in old age. The truth of the matter is that Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was entrusted to the Holy Prophet, not because of any financial considerations, but because the Holy Prophet had developed a liking for the child, and wanted to have him by his side. In entrusting Ali to the care of the Holy Prophet, Abu Talib did not part from Ali. Ali visited the house of his parents every day, and he was as much a member of the house of Abu Talib as that of the Holy Prophet. Indeed the house of the Holy Prophet was an extension of the house of Abu Talib, and the young Ali lived with the Holy Prophet as a younger brother would live with an elder brother without any break with the paternal house. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) became the ward of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) at the age of five. When Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) came to live with the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) that was some time in the year 604 C.E. By this time eight years had passed since the marriage of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Khadija. At the time the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was thirty-three years and Khadija was forty-eight years old. During these eight years, Khadija had given birth to seven children. Out of these three were sons and four were daughters. All the three boys died during infancy. The girls survived. These were Zainab, Ruqayya, Umm Kulthum and Fatima. There were no more births thereafter. All the source books that have come down to us are silent as to the activities of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) during this period. We know that Khadija was a rich lady and when the record is silent about any business activity of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) that tends to create the impression that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) depended on the wealth of his wife. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) being the greatest of all men of all times, and a personification of perfection in all spheres of human activity could not be supposed as living on the wealth of anybody else, howsoever close. Years later in a verse of the Holy Quran, ALLAH said, "Were thee not poor, and did We not enrich thee?" A person who depends on the wealth of another person cannot be regarded as a rich man. The test of richness is that such richness should be on his own account and because of his own efforts. We know that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was a skilful Manager, and a man endowed with such qualities could not be expected to sit idle. We know that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was known as "Amin". This means that he was a banker, and a person who practiced banking must necessarily be a rich man. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) undertook some trade journeys before his marriage, and such journeys proved to be profitable from the business point of view. There appears to be no ground to believe that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) stopped all business activity after marriage. On the other hand, the plausibility is that he undertook such activities on a still bigger scale. It appears that during this period, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) headed a trade organization whereof his wife and some other friends were partners. We can thus conclude that when Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) came to live with the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), he found in the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), all the comforts that are found in the house of a rich man.
As the Holy Prophet was rich, it is certain that on taking over the responsibility for the maintenance of Ali, the Holy Prophet made the best possible arrangement for his education.
No detailed account of the early years of the childhood of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) is available, and where the source books are silent the story has been reconstructed on the basis of the laws of plausibility and probability. It was a custom of the Quraish of Makkah that they entrusted their new born sons to the care of foster parents belonging to the tribes of the desert, and it was in the open air of the desert that the young sons of the Quraish were bred during the first few years of their childhood. We know that the Holy Prophet spent the first five years of his childhood with his foster parents in the desert. We do not know who the foster parents of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) were. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) had a strong constitution, and after the Holy Prophet, he was the most eloquent person among the Quraish. This provides evidence to the effect that like the Holy Prophet, Ali spent the first few years of his childhood in the desert. It appears that the necessary arrangements in this behalf were made by the Holy Prophet, and he paid for the maintenance of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in the desert.
As the Holy Prophet had arranged for the stay of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in the desert, it appears that on return from the desert, the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was brought to the house of the Holy Prophet, and he arranged some function to mark the occasion which was attended by Abu Talib and his family, and other close relatives. The Holy Prophet had looked after the young Ali since his birth and he developed a great liking for him. It was against this background that the Holy Prophet requested Abu Talib that Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) be entrusted to his care, and be allowed to live with him as a member of his family. Abu Talib agreed as he felt that the Holy Prophet would look after Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in a much better way than he could.
Most of the writers have expressed the view that the Holy Prophet took over the responsibility for the maintenance of Ali to provide financial relief to Abu Talib whose financial position had grown weak. It is difficult to accept this view. Abu Talib was a Quraish chief and he enjoyed reputation as such and commanded great influence. Like the other Quraish he undertook trading activities. There is no evidence to the effect that he was involved in any financial difficulty. Abu Talib had really any financial difficulty, the Holy Prophet who was in affluent circumstances could have supplemented the financial resources of Abu Talib by providing financial assistance as a son would help a father in old age. The truth of the matter is that Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was entrusted to the Holy Prophet, not because of any financial considerations, but because the Holy Prophet had developed a liking for the child, and wanted to have him by his side. In entrusting Ali to the care of the Holy Prophet, Abu Talib did not part from Ali. Ali visited the house of his parents every day, and he was as much a member of the house of Abu Talib as that of the Holy Prophet. Indeed the house of the Holy Prophet was an extension of the house of Abu Talib, and the young Ali lived with the Holy Prophet as a younger brother would live with an elder brother without any break with the paternal house. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) became the ward of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) at the age of five. When Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) came to live with the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) that was some time in the year 604 C.E. By this time eight years had passed since the marriage of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Khadija. At the time the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was thirty-three years and Khadija was forty-eight years old. During these eight years, Khadija had given birth to seven children. Out of these three were sons and four were daughters. All the three boys died during infancy. The girls survived. These were Zainab, Ruqayya, Umm Kulthum and Fatima. There were no more births thereafter. All the source books that have come down to us are silent as to the activities of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) during this period. We know that Khadija was a rich lady and when the record is silent about any business activity of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) that tends to create the impression that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) depended on the wealth of his wife. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) being the greatest of all men of all times, and a personification of perfection in all spheres of human activity could not be supposed as living on the wealth of anybody else, howsoever close. Years later in a verse of the Holy Quran, ALLAH said, "Were thee not poor, and did We not enrich thee?" A person who depends on the wealth of another person cannot be regarded as a rich man. The test of richness is that such richness should be on his own account and because of his own efforts. We know that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was a skilful Manager, and a man endowed with such qualities could not be expected to sit idle. We know that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was known as "Amin". This means that he was a banker, and a person who practiced banking must necessarily be a rich man. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) undertook some trade journeys before his marriage, and such journeys proved to be profitable from the business point of view. There appears to be no ground to believe that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) stopped all business activity after marriage. On the other hand, the plausibility is that he undertook such activities on a still bigger scale. It appears that during this period, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) headed a trade organization whereof his wife and some other friends were partners. We can thus conclude that when Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) came to live with the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), he found in the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), all the comforts that are found in the house of a rich man.
As the Holy Prophet was rich, it is certain that on taking over the responsibility for the maintenance of Ali, the Holy Prophet made the best possible arrangement for his education.
Life After Conversion to Islam
Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) knew that he was born in the Kaaba. He had, therefore, a fond attachment for the Kaaba. Some time in 605 C.E. the Quraish reconstructed the Kaaba. A dispute arose about the placing of the Holy Stone as each section of the Quraish wanted to have this honor for itself. It was ultimately decided that on the appointed day whosoever was the first to enter the Kaaba should decide as to how the dispute was to be resolved. On the appointed day the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was the first to enter the Kaaba. He decided that the Holy Stone should be placed in a mantle, and this mantle should be upheld by a representative of each section of the Quraish. The stone was carried in this way to the place where it was to be fixed in the wall. There the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) lifted the stone from the mantle and fixed it at the appropriate place in the wall. Young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was present in the Kaaba on this occasion and he watched the proceedings with great interest. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) felt a sense of pride at the association of his family with the Kaaba. He himself was born in the Kaaba, and his guardian had presided at the ceremony of laying down the Holy Stone. The Kaaba was verily the House of God, but he wondered why it was studded with over three hundred and sixty idols made of stone. The people worshipped these idols and slaughtered animals at their altar. He young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) wondered why these deaf and dumb idols were worshipped and propitiated when they were not capable of conferring any benefit or inflicting any wrong on the people.
At this impressionable period of his life, the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was most impressed with the personality and character of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was the paragon of virtues, and the personification of human perfection. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), Abu Bakr, and some other friends often met at the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). The young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) listened attentively to such talks. From these talks the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) gathered that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was in quest of a new order of things. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) resolved in his young mind that in any adventure in the discovery of a new order of things, he would stand by the side of Mohammad. He came to know from Abu Talib how a Christian monk in Syria had prophesied many years ago that Mohammad was destined to be a prophet of God. He heard from Khadija that her dream signified that great destiny awaited Mohammad,and that he was to be a great leader of men and the savior of humanity. The young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) anxiously longed to see that day when such dreams would be realized. He moved by a strong determination that as and when Muhammad was lifted to the status of prophethood he, as the ward of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) regarded the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) not merely as a brother or a guardian, but as his guide and preceptor. Availing of the company of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) took pains to acquire most of the attributes, which were the distinguishing features of the character of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). It was a result of this training received because of close association with the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) that Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in due course grew to be the alter ego of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him).
The year 611 C.E. was a turning point in the life of Muhammad (peace be upon him) for it was in this year that he was commissioned as a prophet of God to communicate the message of Islam to mankind. It was a turning point in the life of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) for in this year he was converted to Islam.During the first three years, Islam remained a private affair and no attempt was made to proclaim Islam publicly. The message of Islam was during this period conveyed privately to his friends by the Holy Prophet. Among the persons outside the family of the Holy Prophet, Abu Bakr was the first to be converted to Islam. Abu Bakr in turn brought some of his friends to the fold of Islam. Those who accepted Islam persuaded their friends to accept Islam. In this way the chain came to be extended, and the progress of Islam though not spectacular was quite satisfactory. The early Muslims prayed in secluded glens, or other solitary places. On one occasion Abu Talib happened to see the Muslims praying behind the Holy Prophet in a glen out side Makkah. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was one of the congregation. Abu Talib asked Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) as to whom they were praying, and what was the religion they had adopted. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) told his father that they were praying to ALLAH, the Lord of the world and the universe. There was no god but ALLAH and Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) was His prophet. Abu Talib pondered for a while and said, "If Muhammad has become the prophet, hold fast to him for he cannot but be right. I know that his elevation to prophethood was expected many years ago".
After three years of the call to prophethood, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) received the command of God that he should publicly proclaim the message of Islam, and that he could make a beginning with his relatives, belonging to the house of Banu Hashim. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) invited the Hashimites, about forty men, to a feast. After the feast the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) gave an account as to how he had been visited by the angel Gabriel who had conveyed to him the orders of ALLAH commissioning him as His prophet. He said that there was no god but ALLAH, and that he was His Messenger commissioned to call the people to the faith. He added that the members of the house of Hashim should feel proud that this honor had come to one of them. Waxing eloquent the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) said that in the task of promoting the new faith he needed their support. He posed the question, "Who out of you would support me in this task? A silence fell on the guests and no one uttered a word. Young Ali thereupon rose to say, "Holy Prophet, I will be your support"? The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) looked approvingly at young Ali, and thanked him for his support. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) posed the same question for the second and third time but, no one out of the guests promised any support. Each time the young Ali rose to offer his support in unequivocal terms. Abu Talib had already assured the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) of his protection and he did not consider it advisable to make a public declaration of his support or protection at that stage. He, however, felt happy at the courage shown by the young Ali. He felt that there was something extraordinary in the new faith, which had motivated young Ali to the demonstration of such courage in public. Abu Lahab a step uncle of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) took a hostile attitude. He ridiculed the new faith, and felt sorry that his nephew had lost his sense, and was suffering from some hallucination. He wanted the guests to disperse. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) felt very unhappy at his failure to win the support of the Banu Hashim. Though disappointed the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was not daunted. He knew that the course of the Truth could not be anything but rough and that in order to fulfil his mission he should prepare himself to face difficulties. After his disappointment with the Banu Hashim the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) decided to make a public declaration of his faith. One day he mounted the hillock, Mt Safa, and called the people to come and listen to him. Ali was by the side of the Holy Prophet. In response to the call a large crowd gathered at the foot of the hill to listen to the Holy Prophet. Addressing the people, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) said: "O people, if I tell you that on the other side of this hill there were the forces of an enemy coming to attack you, would you believe me"? They said, "Yes, we would believe in you, for you are known to be truthful. " Thereupon the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) said, "if I tell you that there is no god but ALLAH, and I am His prophet, would you believe me. " The people made no reply and the crowd dispersed. The people steeped deep in ignorance were not yet in the mood to know the Truth. As the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Ali came down from the hill they felt that they would have to carry a great struggle in the cause of their mission before any results could be achieved.
The public proclamation of Islam by the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) led to a great crisis. The people were not prepared to accept any change in their age-long beliefs, and the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was not inclined to relax or spare any effort in the fulfillment of the great mission that had been entrusted to him by God. Thus began a battle between truth and falsehood. It was an extraordinary battle in the annals of mankind. In this battle waged under the command of the Holy Prophet, Ali was the right hand man of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and was always in the forefront of the struggle. As in the subsequent battles fought between the Muslims and the pagans in the conventional style, Ali proved to be a warrior of extraordinary valor whose sword put hundreds of the unbelievers to death. It appears that at this stage during the second decade of seventh century when the stage was set for a conflict between truth and falsehood, Ali received some sort of military training which stood him in great stead in the following years of his life, marked by open warfare between the Muslims and the pagans.
In spite of the fact that at the feast held by the Holy Prophet in the honor of the men belonging to the house of Banu Hashim. No one had responded to his call, some members of the family were attracted to the new faith. These included Jafar, his wife Asma, and Hamza Jafar was a brother of Ali, and Hamza was an uncle of the Holy Prophet and Ali. It appears that Ali played an important part in the conversion of Jafar and his wife who were particularly attached to Ali. When the Holy Prophet gave the call at Mt. Safa, and invited the people to the new faith, they had refused to listen to him. In spite of that, some persons were attracted by the new faith, and they offered allegiance to the Holy Prophet regardless of what the other people said. By 615 C.E. in spite of untoward circumstances and unfavorable conditions about one hundred persons, men and women had joined the fold of Islam and the Muslim community had come to acquire particular identity of their own.
The growing strength of the Muslim community stirred the Quraish to action. They launched a vilification campaign against the Holy Prophet, Islam and the Muslims. In uncouth verses the Quraish poets ridiculed the Holy Prophet and his faith. Ali was a poet and it appears that he composed some verses highlighting the truth about Islam. The Quraish made a crude and undignified attempt towards the character assassination of the Holy Prophet. Some said that he had gone mad and had lost his senses. Some said that he was the victim of some hallucination. There were others who said that he was a wizard or a "Kahin." Some said that he was the victim of some "Jinn". When all attempts of vilification and character assassination failed, the Quraish made preposterous demands as a proof for the veracity of the Holy Prophet. They said that if the angel appeared to him, he should show them the angel. They said that if he was the beloved of God he should ask God to turn the rocks of Makkah into gold. They wanted that he should show them some miracle. He should get the desert of Arabia converted into an oasis. Some said that if he was a prophet, and knew of things not known to others, he should show them the spots where treasure was buried under the earth. The Holy Prophet maintained that the Holy Quran was his miracle, and he challenged the unbelievers to produce anything like that. When all the tactics of the Quraish proved abortive, they resorted to physical force. They persecuted the Muslims and subjected them to great hardships. When the persecutions of the Quraish became unbearable the Holy Prophet ordered his followers to migrate to Abyssinia. It was the year 615 C.E about eighty Muslims including women migrated to Abyssinia. About two dozen Muslims, including Abu Bakr and Ali, were left in Makkah, and this included the Holy Prophet and the members of his family. Thus to all intents and purposes, the Muslims evacuated Makkah.Because of their repeated failures, the Quraish became desperate. They felt that now the only way before them was to kill Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him). The Holy Prophet enjoyed the protection of his tribe Abu Hashim, and as long as such protection was there Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) could not be killed according to the tribal code, for any such murder would have precipitated tribal warfare. The Quraish approached Abu Talib, the head of the Banu Hashim, to prevail upon Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) to desist from his teachings. Abu Talib consulted the Holy Prophet whether he could accommodate the Quraish in any way. The Holy Prophet expressed his resolution in strong terms that he would not fail or falter in the performance of the mission that had been entrusted to him by God. Thereupon the Quraish asked Abu Talib to withdraw
the protection of Banu Hashim from Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him). Abu Talib consulted the Holy Prophet again, and tried to prevail upon him to compromise with the Quraish in some way, which could avert the crisis. The Prophet told his uncle that he could withdraw his protection from him if he liked, but he could not compromise in any way in the matter of the mission entrusted to him by God. Abu Talib felt unhappy on the growing rift between the Muslims and the Quraish, but he assured him that he would not abandon him, whatever might come. Abu Talib accordingly told the Quraish that he could not withdraw his protection from Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him). Thereupon the Quraish decided to enforce social boycott against Banu Hashim. An agreement was drawn up which was signed by the representatives of all the sections of the Quraish except the Banu Hashim. The agreement provided that the Quraish would neither marry their daughters to the Banu Hashim, nor marry the daughters of Banu Hashim. It was also provided that they would neither sell anything to nor buy anything from the Banu Hashim. The document was hung on the Kaaba. The Holy Prophet and the Banu Hashim moved to a glen outside Makkah and there remained in a state of semi-captivity for a period of two to three years. Thereafter the social boycott was lifted, and
the Banu Hashim returned to their homes in Makkah.
The troubles of the Holy Prophet and the Muslims did not come to an end with the end of the social boycott. Frustrated at the failure of the boycott, the Quraish were in a sullen and hostile mood, and they began to think of the adoption of more stringent measures which could bring the Muslims to their knees. In the meantime Abu Talib fell sick. He was already eighty years old and the strain of the confinement during the boycott had proved too heavy for him and had undermined his health. The malady grew worse and after few days Abu Talib dies.
A few days after the death of Abu Talib, Khadija also passed away. The deaths of Abu Talib and Khadija marked the end of an epoch. Abu Talib had been more than a father to the Holy Prophet. In spite of the strong pressure of the Quraish, he had protected the Holy Prophet to the last, and had left a bequest in his favor. Abu Talib was of course the father of Ali, and although Ali lived with the Holy Prophet, he was not denied the paternal love of Abu Talib.
Khadija had been for the Holy Prophet more than wife. She placed all her wealth which was considerable at his disposal. She gave him love. She was the mother of his children. She supported him through thick and thin. She was indeed the first person to be converted to Islam. To Ali she had been more than a mother.
The passing away of Abu Talib and Khadija created a great vacuum in the life of the Holy Prophet. He felt very lonely and disconsolate. His grief was so intense that the Muslims called the year 619 C.E. as "Year of Sorrow". Ali shared this grief with the Holy Prophet.
The tribes around Makkah who had heretofore refused to listen to the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), now came to be divided among themselves and some persons out of them accepted the new faith. To overcome the grief and the irreparable loss because of the death of Khadija, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) married an elderly lady Sauda. She was a good housewife, she looked after the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) with proper care. She looked after the young daughters of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) with great affection, and consoled them in their grief at the loss of their mother. In 621 C.E., a delegation from Yathrib came to Makkah and they accepted Islam. The Jews of Yathrib observed that according to their scriptures that was the time for the advent of a new prophet. After the end of the social boycott, the Muslims stepped up trading activities. It appears that at this time while the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) devoted his attention to religious affairs, Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) concentrated his attention at the management of the business affairs. In the conduct of business the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) entrusted this responsibility to Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) and he discharged this responsibility with due diligence. Heretofore the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) had avoided any armed conflict with the Quraish. A state akin to cold war prevailed between the Quraish and the Muslims for a period of over ten years. In 622 C.E. the people of Yathrib invited the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and his followers to migrate to Yathrib and live in their midst. They promised their full support to the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and his followers. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) directed his followers to migrate in batches to Yathrib. By the beginning of the month of September in 622 C.E. all male members of the Muslim families had left Makkah for Madina except the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), Abu Bakr, and Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him).
The migration of the Muslims to Yathrib caused a great stir in the Quraish camp. They felt that if the Muslims gained strength in Yathrib, they would be a source of great danger for the Quraish. The Quraish held a council of war under the leadership of Abu Sufyan and Abu Jahl. The Quraish felt that as long as Mohammad lived, be it in Makkah or elsewhere, he would continue to be a great challenge for the Quraish. The Quraish took cognizance of the fact that in spite of their hostility, Islam was fast spreading in various parts of Arabia. They viewed the process of the growth of Islam with great concern and alarm. They held that in the circumstances their safety lay in the assassination of Mohammad. The Quraish resolved that Muhammad should be assassinated before he could proceed to Yathrib. The Council of war decided that the young men belonging to all sections should surround the house of Muhammad at night, and assassinate him when he came out of his house in the morning by falling on him in a body, and putting an end to him with the blows of their daggers.
The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was forewarned of the Quraish plot by ALLAH. It was revealed that if the unbelievers plotted ALLAH could frustrate their plot and Allah was the best planner. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) asked Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) to sleep on his bed that night. Thereafter he was to wind up business in Makkah and come to Yathrib. After the departure of other Muslims to Yathrib, Abu Bakr had sought the permission of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) to migrate to Yathrib. Muhammad had asked him to wait for it was possible that he might have a good companion for the journey to Yathrib. Abu Bakr was, however, asked to keep ready for the call to migrate might come any moment. That day before the Quraish youth could come to besiege his house the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) left for the house of Abu Bakr and gave him the tidings that the time for their migration to Yathrib had arrived. At night in the cover of darkness the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Abu Bakr left Makkah for Yathrib. They did not take the direct road to Yathrib. They moved in the opposite direction, and took refuge in a cave in Mt. Thaur some five miles south of Makkah. In the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) at Makkah, Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) locked the doors from inside and lay on the bed of Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). He covered himself with the mantle which was the cover of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). At night the youth of the Quraish surrounded the house according to plan. Peeping inside the house, they saw the bed occupied and felt satisfied that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was sleeping there as usual. The Quraish youth kept the vigil throughout the night and they felt assured that during the night no one entered the house, nor went out of it. When the day dawned and the door of the house was opened, it was Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) and not the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) who had to face the brunt of the fury of the Quraish at the frustration of their plan. "Where is Muhammad?" asked the Quraish, and Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) replied that he had left for Yathrib. When their plan was thus thwarted the Quraish youth were very furious, but Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) faced them boldly without showing any sign of fear. In utter disgust and disappointment the Quraish youth dispersed to carry the tale of the failure of their plan to their leaders Abu Sufyan and Abu Jahl. Once again in the battle between the truth and falsehood, the truth triumphed. That was the closing scene of the drama that had been played at Makkah during the period 611-622 C.E. During this period of eleven years, all the maneuvers that the Quraish had adopted ended in their failure and defeat. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) remained in Makkah for a few days, and when he had settled all accounts and wound up business he took farewell of Makkah, and took the road to Yathrib. It was not a flight as some writers tried to present, it was a march on the road to the fulfillment of destiny. With the migration of the Muslims from Makkah the war between the Quraish and the Muslims was not over. It meant that such a war was now to be carried on a wider front to the increasing advantage of the Muslims, and the ultimate surrender of the Quraish.
At this impressionable period of his life, the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was most impressed with the personality and character of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was the paragon of virtues, and the personification of human perfection. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), Abu Bakr, and some other friends often met at the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). The young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) listened attentively to such talks. From these talks the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) gathered that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was in quest of a new order of things. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) resolved in his young mind that in any adventure in the discovery of a new order of things, he would stand by the side of Mohammad. He came to know from Abu Talib how a Christian monk in Syria had prophesied many years ago that Mohammad was destined to be a prophet of God. He heard from Khadija that her dream signified that great destiny awaited Mohammad,and that he was to be a great leader of men and the savior of humanity. The young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) anxiously longed to see that day when such dreams would be realized. He moved by a strong determination that as and when Muhammad was lifted to the status of prophethood he, as the ward of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) regarded the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) not merely as a brother or a guardian, but as his guide and preceptor. Availing of the company of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), the young Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) took pains to acquire most of the attributes, which were the distinguishing features of the character of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). It was a result of this training received because of close association with the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) that Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) in due course grew to be the alter ego of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him).
The year 611 C.E. was a turning point in the life of Muhammad (peace be upon him) for it was in this year that he was commissioned as a prophet of God to communicate the message of Islam to mankind. It was a turning point in the life of Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) for in this year he was converted to Islam.During the first three years, Islam remained a private affair and no attempt was made to proclaim Islam publicly. The message of Islam was during this period conveyed privately to his friends by the Holy Prophet. Among the persons outside the family of the Holy Prophet, Abu Bakr was the first to be converted to Islam. Abu Bakr in turn brought some of his friends to the fold of Islam. Those who accepted Islam persuaded their friends to accept Islam. In this way the chain came to be extended, and the progress of Islam though not spectacular was quite satisfactory. The early Muslims prayed in secluded glens, or other solitary places. On one occasion Abu Talib happened to see the Muslims praying behind the Holy Prophet in a glen out side Makkah. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was one of the congregation. Abu Talib asked Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) as to whom they were praying, and what was the religion they had adopted. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) told his father that they were praying to ALLAH, the Lord of the world and the universe. There was no god but ALLAH and Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) was His prophet. Abu Talib pondered for a while and said, "If Muhammad has become the prophet, hold fast to him for he cannot but be right. I know that his elevation to prophethood was expected many years ago".
After three years of the call to prophethood, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) received the command of God that he should publicly proclaim the message of Islam, and that he could make a beginning with his relatives, belonging to the house of Banu Hashim. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) invited the Hashimites, about forty men, to a feast. After the feast the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) gave an account as to how he had been visited by the angel Gabriel who had conveyed to him the orders of ALLAH commissioning him as His prophet. He said that there was no god but ALLAH, and that he was His Messenger commissioned to call the people to the faith. He added that the members of the house of Hashim should feel proud that this honor had come to one of them. Waxing eloquent the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) said that in the task of promoting the new faith he needed their support. He posed the question, "Who out of you would support me in this task? A silence fell on the guests and no one uttered a word. Young Ali thereupon rose to say, "Holy Prophet, I will be your support"? The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) looked approvingly at young Ali, and thanked him for his support. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) posed the same question for the second and third time but, no one out of the guests promised any support. Each time the young Ali rose to offer his support in unequivocal terms. Abu Talib had already assured the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) of his protection and he did not consider it advisable to make a public declaration of his support or protection at that stage. He, however, felt happy at the courage shown by the young Ali. He felt that there was something extraordinary in the new faith, which had motivated young Ali to the demonstration of such courage in public. Abu Lahab a step uncle of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) took a hostile attitude. He ridiculed the new faith, and felt sorry that his nephew had lost his sense, and was suffering from some hallucination. He wanted the guests to disperse. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) felt very unhappy at his failure to win the support of the Banu Hashim. Though disappointed the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was not daunted. He knew that the course of the Truth could not be anything but rough and that in order to fulfil his mission he should prepare himself to face difficulties. After his disappointment with the Banu Hashim the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) decided to make a public declaration of his faith. One day he mounted the hillock, Mt Safa, and called the people to come and listen to him. Ali was by the side of the Holy Prophet. In response to the call a large crowd gathered at the foot of the hill to listen to the Holy Prophet. Addressing the people, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) said: "O people, if I tell you that on the other side of this hill there were the forces of an enemy coming to attack you, would you believe me"? They said, "Yes, we would believe in you, for you are known to be truthful. " Thereupon the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) said, "if I tell you that there is no god but ALLAH, and I am His prophet, would you believe me. " The people made no reply and the crowd dispersed. The people steeped deep in ignorance were not yet in the mood to know the Truth. As the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Ali came down from the hill they felt that they would have to carry a great struggle in the cause of their mission before any results could be achieved.
The public proclamation of Islam by the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) led to a great crisis. The people were not prepared to accept any change in their age-long beliefs, and the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was not inclined to relax or spare any effort in the fulfillment of the great mission that had been entrusted to him by God. Thus began a battle between truth and falsehood. It was an extraordinary battle in the annals of mankind. In this battle waged under the command of the Holy Prophet, Ali was the right hand man of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and was always in the forefront of the struggle. As in the subsequent battles fought between the Muslims and the pagans in the conventional style, Ali proved to be a warrior of extraordinary valor whose sword put hundreds of the unbelievers to death. It appears that at this stage during the second decade of seventh century when the stage was set for a conflict between truth and falsehood, Ali received some sort of military training which stood him in great stead in the following years of his life, marked by open warfare between the Muslims and the pagans.
In spite of the fact that at the feast held by the Holy Prophet in the honor of the men belonging to the house of Banu Hashim. No one had responded to his call, some members of the family were attracted to the new faith. These included Jafar, his wife Asma, and Hamza Jafar was a brother of Ali, and Hamza was an uncle of the Holy Prophet and Ali. It appears that Ali played an important part in the conversion of Jafar and his wife who were particularly attached to Ali. When the Holy Prophet gave the call at Mt. Safa, and invited the people to the new faith, they had refused to listen to him. In spite of that, some persons were attracted by the new faith, and they offered allegiance to the Holy Prophet regardless of what the other people said. By 615 C.E. in spite of untoward circumstances and unfavorable conditions about one hundred persons, men and women had joined the fold of Islam and the Muslim community had come to acquire particular identity of their own.
The growing strength of the Muslim community stirred the Quraish to action. They launched a vilification campaign against the Holy Prophet, Islam and the Muslims. In uncouth verses the Quraish poets ridiculed the Holy Prophet and his faith. Ali was a poet and it appears that he composed some verses highlighting the truth about Islam. The Quraish made a crude and undignified attempt towards the character assassination of the Holy Prophet. Some said that he had gone mad and had lost his senses. Some said that he was the victim of some hallucination. There were others who said that he was a wizard or a "Kahin." Some said that he was the victim of some "Jinn". When all attempts of vilification and character assassination failed, the Quraish made preposterous demands as a proof for the veracity of the Holy Prophet. They said that if the angel appeared to him, he should show them the angel. They said that if he was the beloved of God he should ask God to turn the rocks of Makkah into gold. They wanted that he should show them some miracle. He should get the desert of Arabia converted into an oasis. Some said that if he was a prophet, and knew of things not known to others, he should show them the spots where treasure was buried under the earth. The Holy Prophet maintained that the Holy Quran was his miracle, and he challenged the unbelievers to produce anything like that. When all the tactics of the Quraish proved abortive, they resorted to physical force. They persecuted the Muslims and subjected them to great hardships. When the persecutions of the Quraish became unbearable the Holy Prophet ordered his followers to migrate to Abyssinia. It was the year 615 C.E about eighty Muslims including women migrated to Abyssinia. About two dozen Muslims, including Abu Bakr and Ali, were left in Makkah, and this included the Holy Prophet and the members of his family. Thus to all intents and purposes, the Muslims evacuated Makkah.Because of their repeated failures, the Quraish became desperate. They felt that now the only way before them was to kill Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him). The Holy Prophet enjoyed the protection of his tribe Abu Hashim, and as long as such protection was there Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) could not be killed according to the tribal code, for any such murder would have precipitated tribal warfare. The Quraish approached Abu Talib, the head of the Banu Hashim, to prevail upon Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) to desist from his teachings. Abu Talib consulted the Holy Prophet whether he could accommodate the Quraish in any way. The Holy Prophet expressed his resolution in strong terms that he would not fail or falter in the performance of the mission that had been entrusted to him by God. Thereupon the Quraish asked Abu Talib to withdraw
the protection of Banu Hashim from Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him). Abu Talib consulted the Holy Prophet again, and tried to prevail upon him to compromise with the Quraish in some way, which could avert the crisis. The Prophet told his uncle that he could withdraw his protection from him if he liked, but he could not compromise in any way in the matter of the mission entrusted to him by God. Abu Talib felt unhappy on the growing rift between the Muslims and the Quraish, but he assured him that he would not abandon him, whatever might come. Abu Talib accordingly told the Quraish that he could not withdraw his protection from Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him). Thereupon the Quraish decided to enforce social boycott against Banu Hashim. An agreement was drawn up which was signed by the representatives of all the sections of the Quraish except the Banu Hashim. The agreement provided that the Quraish would neither marry their daughters to the Banu Hashim, nor marry the daughters of Banu Hashim. It was also provided that they would neither sell anything to nor buy anything from the Banu Hashim. The document was hung on the Kaaba. The Holy Prophet and the Banu Hashim moved to a glen outside Makkah and there remained in a state of semi-captivity for a period of two to three years. Thereafter the social boycott was lifted, and
the Banu Hashim returned to their homes in Makkah.
The troubles of the Holy Prophet and the Muslims did not come to an end with the end of the social boycott. Frustrated at the failure of the boycott, the Quraish were in a sullen and hostile mood, and they began to think of the adoption of more stringent measures which could bring the Muslims to their knees. In the meantime Abu Talib fell sick. He was already eighty years old and the strain of the confinement during the boycott had proved too heavy for him and had undermined his health. The malady grew worse and after few days Abu Talib dies.
A few days after the death of Abu Talib, Khadija also passed away. The deaths of Abu Talib and Khadija marked the end of an epoch. Abu Talib had been more than a father to the Holy Prophet. In spite of the strong pressure of the Quraish, he had protected the Holy Prophet to the last, and had left a bequest in his favor. Abu Talib was of course the father of Ali, and although Ali lived with the Holy Prophet, he was not denied the paternal love of Abu Talib.
Khadija had been for the Holy Prophet more than wife. She placed all her wealth which was considerable at his disposal. She gave him love. She was the mother of his children. She supported him through thick and thin. She was indeed the first person to be converted to Islam. To Ali she had been more than a mother.
The passing away of Abu Talib and Khadija created a great vacuum in the life of the Holy Prophet. He felt very lonely and disconsolate. His grief was so intense that the Muslims called the year 619 C.E. as "Year of Sorrow". Ali shared this grief with the Holy Prophet.
The tribes around Makkah who had heretofore refused to listen to the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), now came to be divided among themselves and some persons out of them accepted the new faith. To overcome the grief and the irreparable loss because of the death of Khadija, the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) married an elderly lady Sauda. She was a good housewife, she looked after the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) with proper care. She looked after the young daughters of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) with great affection, and consoled them in their grief at the loss of their mother. In 621 C.E., a delegation from Yathrib came to Makkah and they accepted Islam. The Jews of Yathrib observed that according to their scriptures that was the time for the advent of a new prophet. After the end of the social boycott, the Muslims stepped up trading activities. It appears that at this time while the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) devoted his attention to religious affairs, Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) concentrated his attention at the management of the business affairs. In the conduct of business the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) entrusted this responsibility to Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) and he discharged this responsibility with due diligence. Heretofore the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) had avoided any armed conflict with the Quraish. A state akin to cold war prevailed between the Quraish and the Muslims for a period of over ten years. In 622 C.E. the people of Yathrib invited the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and his followers to migrate to Yathrib and live in their midst. They promised their full support to the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and his followers. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) directed his followers to migrate in batches to Yathrib. By the beginning of the month of September in 622 C.E. all male members of the Muslim families had left Makkah for Madina except the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), Abu Bakr, and Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him).
The migration of the Muslims to Yathrib caused a great stir in the Quraish camp. They felt that if the Muslims gained strength in Yathrib, they would be a source of great danger for the Quraish. The Quraish held a council of war under the leadership of Abu Sufyan and Abu Jahl. The Quraish felt that as long as Mohammad lived, be it in Makkah or elsewhere, he would continue to be a great challenge for the Quraish. The Quraish took cognizance of the fact that in spite of their hostility, Islam was fast spreading in various parts of Arabia. They viewed the process of the growth of Islam with great concern and alarm. They held that in the circumstances their safety lay in the assassination of Mohammad. The Quraish resolved that Muhammad should be assassinated before he could proceed to Yathrib. The Council of war decided that the young men belonging to all sections should surround the house of Muhammad at night, and assassinate him when he came out of his house in the morning by falling on him in a body, and putting an end to him with the blows of their daggers.
The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was forewarned of the Quraish plot by ALLAH. It was revealed that if the unbelievers plotted ALLAH could frustrate their plot and Allah was the best planner. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) asked Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) to sleep on his bed that night. Thereafter he was to wind up business in Makkah and come to Yathrib. After the departure of other Muslims to Yathrib, Abu Bakr had sought the permission of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) to migrate to Yathrib. Muhammad had asked him to wait for it was possible that he might have a good companion for the journey to Yathrib. Abu Bakr was, however, asked to keep ready for the call to migrate might come any moment. That day before the Quraish youth could come to besiege his house the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) left for the house of Abu Bakr and gave him the tidings that the time for their migration to Yathrib had arrived. At night in the cover of darkness the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) and Abu Bakr left Makkah for Yathrib. They did not take the direct road to Yathrib. They moved in the opposite direction, and took refuge in a cave in Mt. Thaur some five miles south of Makkah. In the house of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) at Makkah, Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) locked the doors from inside and lay on the bed of Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). He covered himself with the mantle which was the cover of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). At night the youth of the Quraish surrounded the house according to plan. Peeping inside the house, they saw the bed occupied and felt satisfied that the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was sleeping there as usual. The Quraish youth kept the vigil throughout the night and they felt assured that during the night no one entered the house, nor went out of it. When the day dawned and the door of the house was opened, it was Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) and not the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) who had to face the brunt of the fury of the Quraish at the frustration of their plan. "Where is Muhammad?" asked the Quraish, and Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) replied that he had left for Yathrib. When their plan was thus thwarted the Quraish youth were very furious, but Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) faced them boldly without showing any sign of fear. In utter disgust and disappointment the Quraish youth dispersed to carry the tale of the failure of their plan to their leaders Abu Sufyan and Abu Jahl. Once again in the battle between the truth and falsehood, the truth triumphed. That was the closing scene of the drama that had been played at Makkah during the period 611-622 C.E. During this period of eleven years, all the maneuvers that the Quraish had adopted ended in their failure and defeat. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) remained in Makkah for a few days, and when he had settled all accounts and wound up business he took farewell of Makkah, and took the road to Yathrib. It was not a flight as some writers tried to present, it was a march on the road to the fulfillment of destiny. With the migration of the Muslims from Makkah the war between the Quraish and the Muslims was not over. It meant that such a war was now to be carried on a wider front to the increasing advantage of the Muslims, and the ultimate surrender of the Quraish.
Life In Madina
Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) arrived in Yathrib renamed as Madina-tun-Nabi or Madina in the honor of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) towards the close of September in the year 622 C.E. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) welcomed him to Madina, and appreciated his services for risking his life for him at Makkah in facing the fury of the Quraish. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) was glad to note that the task allotted to Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) at Makkah had been properly and satisfactorily done by him.
The world of Madina was quite different from the world of Makkah. At Makkah the Muslims were a persecuted people; at Madina they were the masters of their destiny. At Makkah they were surrounded by enemies; at Madina they were in the midst of friends. The life at Madina marked a break with the past. The days of trials, tribulations and tortures were over and the Muslims were now set on the path of fulfillment. The Muslims were now to build a new society and a new common wealth.
The climate of Makkah was dry, but the climate of Madina was damp. The landscape of Makkah was marked by barren rocks, and stony wastes; the landscape of Madina was market by agricultural fields, gardens, and groves of date palms. The change in the physical scene affected the health of the emigrants, and some of them including Abu Bakr fell sick. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) withstood the climatic change without being affected in health. He spent most of his time in nursing the sick and helping them in adjusting themselves to the new environments.
In September 622 AD the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) decided to build a mosque in Madina which was to be a prayer house as well as a community center. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) asked the Muslims to offer their services in labor as well as capital towards the construction of the mosque. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was the first person to offer his services as laborer. He shoveled the earth when the foundations were being laid and later carried on baskets of brick and mortar which he passed on to the masons. In April 623 the mosque was completed. It was square in form, and each side measured fifty yards. The mosque faced towards the north, and had three gates on each of the remaining three sides. Adjoining the mosque apartments were constructed for the household of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) also had an apartment in the mosque. The mosque was a monument of simplicity. The walls were made of mud bricks and the roofs were supported by trunks of palm trees. The apartments for the household were hung with blankets of camel hair as doors. The courtyard in each case was hardly six to seven paces in length, and the length of the rooms did not extend ten paces. In 624 Ali participated in the first Battle between Muslims and Quraish of Mecca (Battle of Badr). After the Battle of Badr, Ali made his suit to marriage of Fatima with Ali. The Holy Prophet told Ali that he would give his reply after consulting Fatima. The Holy Prophet consulted Fatima, and she maintained silence signifying her assent. According to the accounts available in the source books, Ali had no money to meet the expenses of the marriage. He had to sell his armor to raise the necessary funds. Othman who enjoyed reputation for his wealth agreed to purchase the armor for five hundred dirhams. After the transaction had been completed, and the amount had been paid, Othman presented the armor to Ali as a marriage gift saying that the armor would be more useful for a warrior like Ali than for a trader like him. Ali was reluctant to accept the gift, but Othman prevailed to accept it in the name of God, for thereby it would serve the cause of Islam in fighting against its enemies. That made Ali accept the gift with many thanks. When Ali told of the transaction to the Holy Prophet, the Holy Prophet praised the conduct of Othman and prayed for him. On the day fixed for the marriage, the Muslims assembled in the mosque, and the Holy Prophet delivered the Khutba solemnizing the marriage.
According to all accounts that have come down to us, the marriage of Ali and Fatima was an ideal marriage. According to some authors Ali was twenty-one years old at the time of marriage, while Fatima was sixteen years old. According to research the date of the birth of Ali is to be placed around 599 C.E. / 600 C.E. and on this basis he was 24/25 years old at the time of marriage. Fatima was born around 604 C.E. and on this basis she was 19/20 years old at the time of marriage. Hasan, their first child was born in 625 C.E. and Husain, the second child was born in 626 C.E. The Holy Prophet had great love for Hasan and Husain and treated them as his own sons.
In 625 he took part in the Battle of Uhud. Later in the year Ali was a part of campaign against the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Later in 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench.
When the Holy Prophet came to know of the war preparations of the Quraish, he held a council of war. It was felt that in view of the large strength of the forces of the enemy it would not be possible for the Muslims to face the enemy in the open. The Muslims had a bitter experience of the Battle of Uhud, and it was not proper to repeat the mistake. It was accordingly necessary to adopt a new strategy to face the enemy. Salman Farsi, a companion who hailed from Persia suggested that a ditch be dug around Madina for the purposes of defense. This advice was accepted by the Holy Prophet, and it was decided that in the impending battle, the Muslims should remain on the defensive.
Madina had natural defenses on three sides. Only the fourth side was vulnerable to attack. It was decided that a ditch should be dug on this side. The site for the ditch was demarcated by the Holy Prophet. All male adults of the Muslim community in Madina were mobilized to dig the ditch. The labor force was divided into batches and each batch had a leader. Each batch was required to dig a ditch ten yards long. Ali led one batch. The Holy Prophet, Ali and all other companions worked day and night as laborers to dig the ditch.
The forces of the Quraish and the Arab tribes arrived beating drums, and raising shouts boasting, of their strength and invincibility. When they reached Madina, and found that a ditch intervened between them and Madina. They were confused as the Arabs were not used to ditch warfare. They set up their camps at some distance from the Ditch. Thus began the siege of Madina. The enemy made several attempts to cross the ditch, but the Muslim archers kept them at bay. The enemy approached the Jews of Banu Quraiza in Madina to help them in crossing the ditch. The Banu Quraiza were heavily bribed. They threw some dead animals in that part of the ditch where the Muslim defense was not very strong. Due to the treachery of the Banu Quraiza, some warriors of the Quraish led by Amr b Abdwoud managed to cross the ditch. Brandishing his sword, Amr challenged the Muslims to a duel in single combat; Amr was a formidable man who enjoyed the reputation of being equal to a thousand men in physical strength. Ali rose to accept the challenge. The Holy Prophet bade him sit down. Amr repeated his challenge for the second time, and Ali rose up once again to accept the challenge. The Holy Prophet once again asked Ali to sit down. Amr gave the challenge for the third time and Ali stood up again to accept the challenge. This time the Holy Prophet let Ali accept the challenge. When the duel began Ali appeared to be no match for Amr. Amr confident of his physical strength said to Ali that he did not want to kill him. Ali retorted that he intended to kill him. Amr succeeded in inflicting some wounds on Ali, but each time Ali aimed a blow, Amr successfully avoided the blows of Ali. When it appeared that the end of Ali was imminent, something miraculous happened. Amr imagined that some one was going to stab him in the rear. He turned his head. It was for a moment, but Ali took full advantage of the opportunity, and with a blow of his sword cut off the feet of Amr. Amr fell down, and Ali stabbed him to death. Thereupon Usl the son of Amr fell upon Ali. Ali was now as ferocious as a lion. He killed Usl with one stroke of his sword. Thereafter Naufal attacked Ali. Ali charged with full force, and while retreating Naufal fell in to the ditch, Ali jumped after him in the ditch and killed him there. Ikrama b Abu Jahl who had crossed the ditch along with Amr did not dare face Ali. He along with all other men who had crossed the ditch withdrew, and after again crossing the ditch found refuge in their camp. Ali was the hero of the day. It came to be felt that if Ali could overthrow Amr who was believed to be equivalent to a thousand men, Ali would be a man equivalent to ten thousand men. When the sister of Amr came to know that her brother had been killed she inquired from the people as to who had killed him, and when she came to know that Ali had killed him, she said that verily Ali was the bravest man among the Quraish.
The death of Amr at the hands of Ali demoralized the Quraish and their allies. The men of the Banu Ghaftan came to feel that some supernatural power was helping the Muslims. The Holy Prophet sent his agents to work with the confederates and give them the message of Islam. The leader of Banu Ghaftan accepted Islam, and withdrew his contingent from the battlefield. The game of the confederates was to draw the Muslims into the open and defeat them. The Muslims under the command of the Holy Prophet did not fall into the trap. As the siege lengthened, the Arabs of the desert became weary of the prolonged struggle. Under these circumstances more Arab tribes left for their homes. The confederates also began to suffer on account of the scarcity of food and fodder. It was nature that struck the final blow at the confederates. One midnight, a strong storm lashed the countryside. Rain and fast blowing winds overturned the tents of the confederates and extinguished their fires. The Muslims were safe in their houses in Madina, but the confederates who had to bear the brunt of the fury of the storm, rain and hail were unnerved. Losing all hope of victory Abu Sufyan the Quraish leader mounted his camel and ordered a retreat. Thus miserably foiled, the great coalition which had appeared so invincible at the outset suffered a great reverse. The battle ended in the triumph of Islam. That raised the morale of the Muslims, and they came to believe that Islam was the truth against which the forces of falsehood could not maintain a stand. The Muslim victory in the Battle of the Ditch was due to the superior generalship and organizational skill of the Holy Prophet and the prodigies of valor on the part of Ali. The Battle of the Ditch struck the last nail in the coffin of the Quraish of Makkah. Thereafter the Quraish lost their initiative, which now passed on to the Muslims.
In 628 Ali participated in the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact. In 628 he was a part of Muslims' campaign to Khaybar. He is called as Victor of Khyber. In 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca he was part of that army. Later in 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. After the Conquest of Makkah, the tribes around Makkah and Madina accepted Islam. It was now the turn of the remoter parts of Arabia to be introduced to Islam. The Holy Prophet sent missions to various parts of Arabia. One of such missions under Khalid b Walid was sent to Yemen to invite the Yemenites to Islam. Khalid b Walid was a soldier and a swordsman, but not a scholar or a preacher. He was a late convert to Islam, and in spite of his enthusiasm did not have that depth in the understanding of Islam which could attract others to Islam. The Yemenites were proud of their ancient civilization and culture, and could not believe that anyone from the interior of Arabia, always regarded by them as a backward area, could be a source of enlightenment for them. The Jews and the Christians had their high powered missions in Yemen. Some of the people of Yemen were Christians and some of them were Jews. The Christian priests and the Jewish Rabbis had a strong hold on the people of Yemen and in spite of his best efforts for over six months, Khalid bin Walid was not able to make any headway in Yemen. The Holy Prophet recalled Khalid b Walid from Yemen.
The Holy Prophet thereafter commissioned Ali to proceed to Yemen. A force of three hundred soldiers assembled at Quba outside Madina. The Holy Prophet tied the turban on the head of Ali with his own hands, and handed him the standard. The Holy Prophet prayed to God to enlighten the mind of Ali, to make his tongue eloquent, to make his talk impressive, and to make his conduct a source of attraction for others. Although Ali proceeded to Yemen at the head of a force, he was commanded not to use force. The force was only meant for defense in the case of any attack. It was a voyage of enlightenment. People were to be converted to Islam not by an appeal to arms but by an appeal to their hearts.
On reaching Yemen, Ali realized that the people of Yemen were very much under the influence of the Christian priests and Jewish Rabbis, and unless such priests and Rabbis were effectively tackled, there was little likelihood of any success with the common men. The Christian priests and Jewish Rabbis were proud of their religious knowledge. They challenged Ali to a debate. Ali was used to fighting duels with his adversaries in the case of battles, now he had to fight an intellectual duel. The first challenge came from a Christian priest renowned for his learning and piety. A public debate was held. The Christian priest advanced arguments in favor of the perfection of Christianity, and of Jesus Christ being the son of God. It was observed that in such circumstances there could be no question of another faith. Ali smashed these arguments one by one. He quoted from the Christian scriptures wherein Jesus Christ had himself spoken of the advent of a prophet after him. Ali took pains to explain that Islam acknowledged Jesus Christ as a prophet, but did not regard him as a son of God. He maintained that Islam was a perfected form of all previous religions. The debate lasted for several days and at last Ka'ab admitted the superiority of Islam and was converted to Islam. With his conversion many Christians were also converted to Islam.
The Jewish Rabbis felt concerned at the success of Islam. They challenged Ali to a public debate. This debate lasted for several days, and ended in the victory for Islam. Some of the Jewish Rabbis accepted Islam, and following them many Jews accepted Islam. Thereafter Ali spread his men throughout the length and breadth of Yemen to carry the message of Islam to the people. When the people came to know that their priests and rabbis had accepted Islam, they lost the will to resist Islam and accepted the new faith willingly. Within a few months most of the people in Yemen were converted to Islam. These people came to look to Ali as a great hero. When Islam began to spread there were some tribes which professed Christianity. After the expedition to Tabuk some Christian tribes were converted to Islam. Some Christian tribes chose not to change their faith, but they accepted the suzerainty of the Muslims and agreed to pay them an annual tribute. There was a large Christian community in Najran. In 631 C.E., The Holy Prophet invited them to accept Islam. In response, they challenged the Holy Prophet to a Mubahila. The Mubahila was an ancient way of ascertaining the truth. In a religious contest, each of the disputing parties was required to take a solemn oath that they were right and true, and called on God to wreak His vengeance on them if they lied. It was believed that in such cases, the liar was visited by the wrath of God and was destroyed. The Holy Prophet accepted the challenge and asked the Christians of Najran to send a deputation to Madina. A deputation of the Christian priests headed by their chief Aqib accordingly arrived in Madina. They were dressed in fine silken robes, and wore golden rings on their fingers. When dressed thus, they waited on the Holy Prophet in the mosque, the Holy Prophet did not pay any attention to them, and did not even return their salutation. Greatly puzzled they left the mosque, and upon meeting Othman complained to him that the Prophet of Islam had invited them to Madina, but he had paid no attention to them when they had visited him in the mosque. Othman took them to Ali, he told them that indifference of the Holy Prophet was due to the fact that they were dressed in silk finery, and were loaded with jewelry. He advised them to cast off their jewelry and be dressed in simple cotton robes. When they had changed their dress, Ali took them to the Holy Prophet in the mosque. This time, the Holy Prophet welcomed them and made them sit near him. He told them that when they had first come to him, he had turned his head away because Satan accompanied them with finery and jewelry. Thereafter the Holy Prophet entered into the discourse with them, and the talk centered round the personality of Jesus Christ. The Christians wanted to know what was his opinion about Jesus Christ. The Holy Prophet said that like other Prophet he was a Prophet of God. The Christians next asked whether he regarded Jesus Christ as a son of God. The Holy Prophet said the God is far above having a wife or a son, and as such Jesus is not a son of God. The Christians then posed the question: if Jesus had no father and his mother Mary had not sinned, what then is the status of Jesus if he is not the son of God. The Holy Prophet said that they would have their answer the following day. At night the Holy Prophet had a revelation about the true nature of Jesus. When the Christians met the Holy Prophet the following day, he told them that the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the links of Adam. Adam was born without a father and so was Jesus born without a father, but neither Adam nor Jesus was the son of God.
At this reply of the Holy Prophet, the Christians priests felt stranded, but to keep up appearances, they desired that a Mubahila be held. The Christians named five priests who were to take part in the Mubahila. The Holy Prophet nominated five persons who were to take part in the Mubahila on behalf of the Muslims. These included the Holy Prophet himself, Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husain. The Holy Prophet did not dominate any of his wives in this behalf. The nomination was confined to such persons who had blood relation with him. The Holy Prophet declared that the Mubahila would be held the following day. At night, the Christians could get no sleep. They felt that truth shone in the eyes of the Holy Prophet and to invoke the curse of God with people like these would invite destruction for the Christians. The following day when the Christian priests waited on the Holy Prophet, they said that they had neither the conviction to profess Islam, nor the strength to enter into any disputation or fight with the Muslims. They said that while maintaining their own faith, they would accept the dominance of the Muslims and pay an annual tribute. The Holy Prophet accepted the offer, entered into a treaty with them, and allowed them to return to Najran. The way in which the Christians gave the challenge of Mubahila in the first instance, and then backed out of it, was a confession of failure on the part of the Christians, and their acknowledgment of the supremacy of Islam as a faith.
He participated in the farewell Hajj of Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him) in 631. Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him) died on 8 June 632.
The world of Madina was quite different from the world of Makkah. At Makkah the Muslims were a persecuted people; at Madina they were the masters of their destiny. At Makkah they were surrounded by enemies; at Madina they were in the midst of friends. The life at Madina marked a break with the past. The days of trials, tribulations and tortures were over and the Muslims were now set on the path of fulfillment. The Muslims were now to build a new society and a new common wealth.
The climate of Makkah was dry, but the climate of Madina was damp. The landscape of Makkah was marked by barren rocks, and stony wastes; the landscape of Madina was market by agricultural fields, gardens, and groves of date palms. The change in the physical scene affected the health of the emigrants, and some of them including Abu Bakr fell sick. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) withstood the climatic change without being affected in health. He spent most of his time in nursing the sick and helping them in adjusting themselves to the new environments.
In September 622 AD the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) decided to build a mosque in Madina which was to be a prayer house as well as a community center. The Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him) asked the Muslims to offer their services in labor as well as capital towards the construction of the mosque. Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) was the first person to offer his services as laborer. He shoveled the earth when the foundations were being laid and later carried on baskets of brick and mortar which he passed on to the masons. In April 623 the mosque was completed. It was square in form, and each side measured fifty yards. The mosque faced towards the north, and had three gates on each of the remaining three sides. Adjoining the mosque apartments were constructed for the household of the Holy Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him). Ali (ALLAH Bless With Him) also had an apartment in the mosque. The mosque was a monument of simplicity. The walls were made of mud bricks and the roofs were supported by trunks of palm trees. The apartments for the household were hung with blankets of camel hair as doors. The courtyard in each case was hardly six to seven paces in length, and the length of the rooms did not extend ten paces. In 624 Ali participated in the first Battle between Muslims and Quraish of Mecca (Battle of Badr). After the Battle of Badr, Ali made his suit to marriage of Fatima with Ali. The Holy Prophet told Ali that he would give his reply after consulting Fatima. The Holy Prophet consulted Fatima, and she maintained silence signifying her assent. According to the accounts available in the source books, Ali had no money to meet the expenses of the marriage. He had to sell his armor to raise the necessary funds. Othman who enjoyed reputation for his wealth agreed to purchase the armor for five hundred dirhams. After the transaction had been completed, and the amount had been paid, Othman presented the armor to Ali as a marriage gift saying that the armor would be more useful for a warrior like Ali than for a trader like him. Ali was reluctant to accept the gift, but Othman prevailed to accept it in the name of God, for thereby it would serve the cause of Islam in fighting against its enemies. That made Ali accept the gift with many thanks. When Ali told of the transaction to the Holy Prophet, the Holy Prophet praised the conduct of Othman and prayed for him. On the day fixed for the marriage, the Muslims assembled in the mosque, and the Holy Prophet delivered the Khutba solemnizing the marriage.
According to all accounts that have come down to us, the marriage of Ali and Fatima was an ideal marriage. According to some authors Ali was twenty-one years old at the time of marriage, while Fatima was sixteen years old. According to research the date of the birth of Ali is to be placed around 599 C.E. / 600 C.E. and on this basis he was 24/25 years old at the time of marriage. Fatima was born around 604 C.E. and on this basis she was 19/20 years old at the time of marriage. Hasan, their first child was born in 625 C.E. and Husain, the second child was born in 626 C.E. The Holy Prophet had great love for Hasan and Husain and treated them as his own sons.
In 625 he took part in the Battle of Uhud. Later in the year Ali was a part of campaign against the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Later in 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench.
When the Holy Prophet came to know of the war preparations of the Quraish, he held a council of war. It was felt that in view of the large strength of the forces of the enemy it would not be possible for the Muslims to face the enemy in the open. The Muslims had a bitter experience of the Battle of Uhud, and it was not proper to repeat the mistake. It was accordingly necessary to adopt a new strategy to face the enemy. Salman Farsi, a companion who hailed from Persia suggested that a ditch be dug around Madina for the purposes of defense. This advice was accepted by the Holy Prophet, and it was decided that in the impending battle, the Muslims should remain on the defensive.
Madina had natural defenses on three sides. Only the fourth side was vulnerable to attack. It was decided that a ditch should be dug on this side. The site for the ditch was demarcated by the Holy Prophet. All male adults of the Muslim community in Madina were mobilized to dig the ditch. The labor force was divided into batches and each batch had a leader. Each batch was required to dig a ditch ten yards long. Ali led one batch. The Holy Prophet, Ali and all other companions worked day and night as laborers to dig the ditch.
The forces of the Quraish and the Arab tribes arrived beating drums, and raising shouts boasting, of their strength and invincibility. When they reached Madina, and found that a ditch intervened between them and Madina. They were confused as the Arabs were not used to ditch warfare. They set up their camps at some distance from the Ditch. Thus began the siege of Madina. The enemy made several attempts to cross the ditch, but the Muslim archers kept them at bay. The enemy approached the Jews of Banu Quraiza in Madina to help them in crossing the ditch. The Banu Quraiza were heavily bribed. They threw some dead animals in that part of the ditch where the Muslim defense was not very strong. Due to the treachery of the Banu Quraiza, some warriors of the Quraish led by Amr b Abdwoud managed to cross the ditch. Brandishing his sword, Amr challenged the Muslims to a duel in single combat; Amr was a formidable man who enjoyed the reputation of being equal to a thousand men in physical strength. Ali rose to accept the challenge. The Holy Prophet bade him sit down. Amr repeated his challenge for the second time, and Ali rose up once again to accept the challenge. The Holy Prophet once again asked Ali to sit down. Amr gave the challenge for the third time and Ali stood up again to accept the challenge. This time the Holy Prophet let Ali accept the challenge. When the duel began Ali appeared to be no match for Amr. Amr confident of his physical strength said to Ali that he did not want to kill him. Ali retorted that he intended to kill him. Amr succeeded in inflicting some wounds on Ali, but each time Ali aimed a blow, Amr successfully avoided the blows of Ali. When it appeared that the end of Ali was imminent, something miraculous happened. Amr imagined that some one was going to stab him in the rear. He turned his head. It was for a moment, but Ali took full advantage of the opportunity, and with a blow of his sword cut off the feet of Amr. Amr fell down, and Ali stabbed him to death. Thereupon Usl the son of Amr fell upon Ali. Ali was now as ferocious as a lion. He killed Usl with one stroke of his sword. Thereafter Naufal attacked Ali. Ali charged with full force, and while retreating Naufal fell in to the ditch, Ali jumped after him in the ditch and killed him there. Ikrama b Abu Jahl who had crossed the ditch along with Amr did not dare face Ali. He along with all other men who had crossed the ditch withdrew, and after again crossing the ditch found refuge in their camp. Ali was the hero of the day. It came to be felt that if Ali could overthrow Amr who was believed to be equivalent to a thousand men, Ali would be a man equivalent to ten thousand men. When the sister of Amr came to know that her brother had been killed she inquired from the people as to who had killed him, and when she came to know that Ali had killed him, she said that verily Ali was the bravest man among the Quraish.
The death of Amr at the hands of Ali demoralized the Quraish and their allies. The men of the Banu Ghaftan came to feel that some supernatural power was helping the Muslims. The Holy Prophet sent his agents to work with the confederates and give them the message of Islam. The leader of Banu Ghaftan accepted Islam, and withdrew his contingent from the battlefield. The game of the confederates was to draw the Muslims into the open and defeat them. The Muslims under the command of the Holy Prophet did not fall into the trap. As the siege lengthened, the Arabs of the desert became weary of the prolonged struggle. Under these circumstances more Arab tribes left for their homes. The confederates also began to suffer on account of the scarcity of food and fodder. It was nature that struck the final blow at the confederates. One midnight, a strong storm lashed the countryside. Rain and fast blowing winds overturned the tents of the confederates and extinguished their fires. The Muslims were safe in their houses in Madina, but the confederates who had to bear the brunt of the fury of the storm, rain and hail were unnerved. Losing all hope of victory Abu Sufyan the Quraish leader mounted his camel and ordered a retreat. Thus miserably foiled, the great coalition which had appeared so invincible at the outset suffered a great reverse. The battle ended in the triumph of Islam. That raised the morale of the Muslims, and they came to believe that Islam was the truth against which the forces of falsehood could not maintain a stand. The Muslim victory in the Battle of the Ditch was due to the superior generalship and organizational skill of the Holy Prophet and the prodigies of valor on the part of Ali. The Battle of the Ditch struck the last nail in the coffin of the Quraish of Makkah. Thereafter the Quraish lost their initiative, which now passed on to the Muslims.
In 628 Ali participated in the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact. In 628 he was a part of Muslims' campaign to Khaybar. He is called as Victor of Khyber. In 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca he was part of that army. Later in 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. After the Conquest of Makkah, the tribes around Makkah and Madina accepted Islam. It was now the turn of the remoter parts of Arabia to be introduced to Islam. The Holy Prophet sent missions to various parts of Arabia. One of such missions under Khalid b Walid was sent to Yemen to invite the Yemenites to Islam. Khalid b Walid was a soldier and a swordsman, but not a scholar or a preacher. He was a late convert to Islam, and in spite of his enthusiasm did not have that depth in the understanding of Islam which could attract others to Islam. The Yemenites were proud of their ancient civilization and culture, and could not believe that anyone from the interior of Arabia, always regarded by them as a backward area, could be a source of enlightenment for them. The Jews and the Christians had their high powered missions in Yemen. Some of the people of Yemen were Christians and some of them were Jews. The Christian priests and the Jewish Rabbis had a strong hold on the people of Yemen and in spite of his best efforts for over six months, Khalid bin Walid was not able to make any headway in Yemen. The Holy Prophet recalled Khalid b Walid from Yemen.
The Holy Prophet thereafter commissioned Ali to proceed to Yemen. A force of three hundred soldiers assembled at Quba outside Madina. The Holy Prophet tied the turban on the head of Ali with his own hands, and handed him the standard. The Holy Prophet prayed to God to enlighten the mind of Ali, to make his tongue eloquent, to make his talk impressive, and to make his conduct a source of attraction for others. Although Ali proceeded to Yemen at the head of a force, he was commanded not to use force. The force was only meant for defense in the case of any attack. It was a voyage of enlightenment. People were to be converted to Islam not by an appeal to arms but by an appeal to their hearts.
On reaching Yemen, Ali realized that the people of Yemen were very much under the influence of the Christian priests and Jewish Rabbis, and unless such priests and Rabbis were effectively tackled, there was little likelihood of any success with the common men. The Christian priests and Jewish Rabbis were proud of their religious knowledge. They challenged Ali to a debate. Ali was used to fighting duels with his adversaries in the case of battles, now he had to fight an intellectual duel. The first challenge came from a Christian priest renowned for his learning and piety. A public debate was held. The Christian priest advanced arguments in favor of the perfection of Christianity, and of Jesus Christ being the son of God. It was observed that in such circumstances there could be no question of another faith. Ali smashed these arguments one by one. He quoted from the Christian scriptures wherein Jesus Christ had himself spoken of the advent of a prophet after him. Ali took pains to explain that Islam acknowledged Jesus Christ as a prophet, but did not regard him as a son of God. He maintained that Islam was a perfected form of all previous religions. The debate lasted for several days and at last Ka'ab admitted the superiority of Islam and was converted to Islam. With his conversion many Christians were also converted to Islam.
The Jewish Rabbis felt concerned at the success of Islam. They challenged Ali to a public debate. This debate lasted for several days, and ended in the victory for Islam. Some of the Jewish Rabbis accepted Islam, and following them many Jews accepted Islam. Thereafter Ali spread his men throughout the length and breadth of Yemen to carry the message of Islam to the people. When the people came to know that their priests and rabbis had accepted Islam, they lost the will to resist Islam and accepted the new faith willingly. Within a few months most of the people in Yemen were converted to Islam. These people came to look to Ali as a great hero. When Islam began to spread there were some tribes which professed Christianity. After the expedition to Tabuk some Christian tribes were converted to Islam. Some Christian tribes chose not to change their faith, but they accepted the suzerainty of the Muslims and agreed to pay them an annual tribute. There was a large Christian community in Najran. In 631 C.E., The Holy Prophet invited them to accept Islam. In response, they challenged the Holy Prophet to a Mubahila. The Mubahila was an ancient way of ascertaining the truth. In a religious contest, each of the disputing parties was required to take a solemn oath that they were right and true, and called on God to wreak His vengeance on them if they lied. It was believed that in such cases, the liar was visited by the wrath of God and was destroyed. The Holy Prophet accepted the challenge and asked the Christians of Najran to send a deputation to Madina. A deputation of the Christian priests headed by their chief Aqib accordingly arrived in Madina. They were dressed in fine silken robes, and wore golden rings on their fingers. When dressed thus, they waited on the Holy Prophet in the mosque, the Holy Prophet did not pay any attention to them, and did not even return their salutation. Greatly puzzled they left the mosque, and upon meeting Othman complained to him that the Prophet of Islam had invited them to Madina, but he had paid no attention to them when they had visited him in the mosque. Othman took them to Ali, he told them that indifference of the Holy Prophet was due to the fact that they were dressed in silk finery, and were loaded with jewelry. He advised them to cast off their jewelry and be dressed in simple cotton robes. When they had changed their dress, Ali took them to the Holy Prophet in the mosque. This time, the Holy Prophet welcomed them and made them sit near him. He told them that when they had first come to him, he had turned his head away because Satan accompanied them with finery and jewelry. Thereafter the Holy Prophet entered into the discourse with them, and the talk centered round the personality of Jesus Christ. The Christians wanted to know what was his opinion about Jesus Christ. The Holy Prophet said that like other Prophet he was a Prophet of God. The Christians next asked whether he regarded Jesus Christ as a son of God. The Holy Prophet said the God is far above having a wife or a son, and as such Jesus is not a son of God. The Christians then posed the question: if Jesus had no father and his mother Mary had not sinned, what then is the status of Jesus if he is not the son of God. The Holy Prophet said that they would have their answer the following day. At night the Holy Prophet had a revelation about the true nature of Jesus. When the Christians met the Holy Prophet the following day, he told them that the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the links of Adam. Adam was born without a father and so was Jesus born without a father, but neither Adam nor Jesus was the son of God.
At this reply of the Holy Prophet, the Christians priests felt stranded, but to keep up appearances, they desired that a Mubahila be held. The Christians named five priests who were to take part in the Mubahila. The Holy Prophet nominated five persons who were to take part in the Mubahila on behalf of the Muslims. These included the Holy Prophet himself, Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husain. The Holy Prophet did not dominate any of his wives in this behalf. The nomination was confined to such persons who had blood relation with him. The Holy Prophet declared that the Mubahila would be held the following day. At night, the Christians could get no sleep. They felt that truth shone in the eyes of the Holy Prophet and to invoke the curse of God with people like these would invite destruction for the Christians. The following day when the Christian priests waited on the Holy Prophet, they said that they had neither the conviction to profess Islam, nor the strength to enter into any disputation or fight with the Muslims. They said that while maintaining their own faith, they would accept the dominance of the Muslims and pay an annual tribute. The Holy Prophet accepted the offer, entered into a treaty with them, and allowed them to return to Najran. The way in which the Christians gave the challenge of Mubahila in the first instance, and then backed out of it, was a confession of failure on the part of the Christians, and their acknowledgment of the supremacy of Islam as a faith.
He participated in the farewell Hajj of Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him) in 631. Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him) died on 8 June 632.
Ali in Callphate of Abu Bakr, Umar and Othman
|
After Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him) death, Abu Bakr became the first Muslim Caliph. Fatima took the death of the Holy Prophet to heart, and she passed away in early 633 C E, barely six months after the passing away of the Holy Prophet. She was only twenty-nine years old at the time or her death. Her marriage lasted for a short period of eight or nine years only. During this period she gave birth to five children, three sons and two daughters.
|
Her three sons were Hasan, Husain, and Mohsin. Mohsin died during infancy. Hasan was about seven years old while Husain was about six years old at the time of her death. Ali was much grieved at the death of Fatima. Her passing away so soon after the death of the Holy Prophet was a great blow for Ali. He felt disconsolate. From the source books that have come down to us, we do not have a proper account of the activities of Ali during the caliphate of Abu Bakr. Unfortunately most of the accounts that are available are colored because of sectarian and partisan considerations. It appears that Ali did not take the oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr for some time and he remained aloof from the state politics. It appears that after the death of Fatima, Abu Bakr tried to console Ali in his grief, and win over his goodwill. It appears that Ali took the oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr some time after the death of Fatima and got reconciled to him. When Abu Bakr died, Ali in the funeral oration highly praised Abu Bakr. This shows that in the later part of the caliphate of Abu Bakr the relationship between Abu Bakr and Ali was cordial. Ali however did not take any part in the apostasy wars that were fought during the caliphate of Abu Bakr. It appears that Ali during the period confined his activities to domestic affairs and religious pursuits. On Monday 23 August 634 (21 Jamadi-al Akhir, 13th A.H.) between Maghrib and Isha at the age of sixty-one Abu Bakr (ALLAH Bless With Him) died. The funeral prayer was led by Umar. His caliphate had been of a mere twenty-seven months duration. Umar became Caliph on 23 August 634 CE (21 Jamadi-al Akhir, 13th AH).
Ali not only took the oath of allegiance to Umar but also married his daughter Umm Kulthum, and quite contrary to the biased allegations, perfect cordiality prevailed between Ali and Umar. Ali held the office of the Chief Justice. He acted as the principal Counselor of Umar. He acted as Chief Secretary as well. The services of Ali were highly appreciated by Umar. In these circumstances the views expressed in some quarters that Umar was the worst enemy of Ali is far from truth and cannot be accepted. Umar died on Sunday, 7 November 644 (26th Dhu Al-Hijja 23 Hijri ). As per Umar's will, he was buried next to Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi alongside Mohammad and Caliph Abu Bakr by the permission of Aisha. When Umar passed away, Ali mourned his death in the following terms:
Ali not only took the oath of allegiance to Umar but also married his daughter Umm Kulthum, and quite contrary to the biased allegations, perfect cordiality prevailed between Ali and Umar. Ali held the office of the Chief Justice. He acted as the principal Counselor of Umar. He acted as Chief Secretary as well. The services of Ali were highly appreciated by Umar. In these circumstances the views expressed in some quarters that Umar was the worst enemy of Ali is far from truth and cannot be accepted. Umar died on Sunday, 7 November 644 (26th Dhu Al-Hijja 23 Hijri ). As per Umar's will, he was buried next to Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi alongside Mohammad and Caliph Abu Bakr by the permission of Aisha. When Umar passed away, Ali mourned his death in the following terms:
May God bless the soul of Umar. He made things straight. He cured the malady. He enforced the Shari'ah. He established law and order. He was noble, virtuous, and free from faults. He availed of what was good of the caliphate and avoided what was evil thereof. He obeyed God, and served His cause well. After his passing away the people have taken to different paths where those who have strayed cannot find the way, and those who have followed the straight way cannot long keep it.
On the fourth day after the death of Umar, 11 November 644, 5 Muharram 24 Hijri, Uthman was elected as the third Caliph, with the title "Amir al-Mu'minin".
During the caliphates of Abu Bakr and Othman, Ali held the dual offices of Chief Justice as well as Chief Secretary. Othman conferred the office of the Chief Secretary on his cousin Marwan. Ali remained as the Chief Justice. He continued to be a member of the Majlisi-Shura. The accounts that have came down to us are mostly silent about the activities of Ali. In the various history books we come across the judgments that Ali delivered during the caliphate of Umar, and marvel at the highly developed sense of judgment of Ali. I have not come across any judgment delivered by Ali during the caliphate of Othman though Ali is said to have held the office of the Chief Justice during this period. Although the Hashimites and the Umayyads belonged to the same stock, there was rivalry between the two houses. After the death of Abdul Muttabb, power passed on to Umayyads who enjoyed greater wealth. When the Holy Prophet declared his mission, the Umayyads led the Quraish in hostility against the Holy Prophet and the Muslims. The Umayyads accepted Islam after the conquest of Makkah in 680 C.E. thereafter the Umayyads acknowledged the superiority of the Hashimites. This position lasted for a short period of two years only as the Holy Prophet died in 632 C.E. Abu Bakr and Umar who were elected as the Caliphs thereafter did not belong either to the Hashimite or Umayyad section of the Quraish. Othman was an Umayyad and during his caliphate the Umayyads gained in power at the cost of the Hashimite. There is a passage in Nabj-ul-Balagha wherein Ali complains that the Umayyads were withholding from him what was his due as the camelman withholds the like of the she camel from her young one. It appears that during the caliphate of Othman, Ali led a more or less retired life, and did not take any active part in politics. By this time Ali had four wives and a number of children. During this period Ali devoted most of his time to religious exercises and domestic activities. After the death of the Persian emperor Yezdjurd his daughters were taken captive, and brought to Madina. When put to open auction the oldest princess slapped the auctioneer on the face. Ali advised that it was not proper that such distinguished persons should be put to open auction. The proper line of action was that the standard price should be faced, and whosoever paid the amount should get the princess. Ali purchased two princesses. He married one of them to his son Husain and the other to his step son Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. This shows that by this time the financial condition of Ali had considerably improved.
Othman known by the epithet of "Ghani" was a rich man. Umar had placed restrictions on the purchase of lands by the Arabs in conquered territories. Othman removed these restrictions, with the result that the Arabs became big landlords. Islam stood for an egalitarian society wherein all people were equal politically as well as economically. On account of the liberal policies adopted by Othman, a moneyed class sprang up which took to a luxurious way of life. Men of this class built palatial buildings in Madina. In Syria the Governor Muswiyah a cousin of Othman adopted a princely way of life. In Damascus Abu Dhar Ghifan an eminent Companion vehemently criticized the luxurious way of life of Muawiyah and the men around him. Muawiya complained to Othman, and Othman asked Muawiyah to send Abu Dhar Ghifari to Madina. In Madina Abu Dhar Ghifari criticized Othman for his economic policies. Othman shifted Abu Dhar Ghifari to the interior of the desert at some distance from Madina.
During the first six years of the caliphate of Othman, the process of foreign conquests went apace, and the people were satisfied. During the later part of the caliphate of Othman, the process of foreign conquests came to a grinding halt and discontentment began to mount among the people. The government of Othman was accused of nepotism, corruption and inefficiency. A crisis was reached in 656 C.E. when the malcontents from Egypt, Kufa, and Basra marched to Madina to demand the redress of their grievances. A body of the mal-contents approached Ali and requested him to bring their grievances to the notice of the Caliph. Ali visited Othman and said:
During the caliphates of Abu Bakr and Othman, Ali held the dual offices of Chief Justice as well as Chief Secretary. Othman conferred the office of the Chief Secretary on his cousin Marwan. Ali remained as the Chief Justice. He continued to be a member of the Majlisi-Shura. The accounts that have came down to us are mostly silent about the activities of Ali. In the various history books we come across the judgments that Ali delivered during the caliphate of Umar, and marvel at the highly developed sense of judgment of Ali. I have not come across any judgment delivered by Ali during the caliphate of Othman though Ali is said to have held the office of the Chief Justice during this period. Although the Hashimites and the Umayyads belonged to the same stock, there was rivalry between the two houses. After the death of Abdul Muttabb, power passed on to Umayyads who enjoyed greater wealth. When the Holy Prophet declared his mission, the Umayyads led the Quraish in hostility against the Holy Prophet and the Muslims. The Umayyads accepted Islam after the conquest of Makkah in 680 C.E. thereafter the Umayyads acknowledged the superiority of the Hashimites. This position lasted for a short period of two years only as the Holy Prophet died in 632 C.E. Abu Bakr and Umar who were elected as the Caliphs thereafter did not belong either to the Hashimite or Umayyad section of the Quraish. Othman was an Umayyad and during his caliphate the Umayyads gained in power at the cost of the Hashimite. There is a passage in Nabj-ul-Balagha wherein Ali complains that the Umayyads were withholding from him what was his due as the camelman withholds the like of the she camel from her young one. It appears that during the caliphate of Othman, Ali led a more or less retired life, and did not take any active part in politics. By this time Ali had four wives and a number of children. During this period Ali devoted most of his time to religious exercises and domestic activities. After the death of the Persian emperor Yezdjurd his daughters were taken captive, and brought to Madina. When put to open auction the oldest princess slapped the auctioneer on the face. Ali advised that it was not proper that such distinguished persons should be put to open auction. The proper line of action was that the standard price should be faced, and whosoever paid the amount should get the princess. Ali purchased two princesses. He married one of them to his son Husain and the other to his step son Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. This shows that by this time the financial condition of Ali had considerably improved.
Othman known by the epithet of "Ghani" was a rich man. Umar had placed restrictions on the purchase of lands by the Arabs in conquered territories. Othman removed these restrictions, with the result that the Arabs became big landlords. Islam stood for an egalitarian society wherein all people were equal politically as well as economically. On account of the liberal policies adopted by Othman, a moneyed class sprang up which took to a luxurious way of life. Men of this class built palatial buildings in Madina. In Syria the Governor Muswiyah a cousin of Othman adopted a princely way of life. In Damascus Abu Dhar Ghifan an eminent Companion vehemently criticized the luxurious way of life of Muawiyah and the men around him. Muawiya complained to Othman, and Othman asked Muawiyah to send Abu Dhar Ghifari to Madina. In Madina Abu Dhar Ghifari criticized Othman for his economic policies. Othman shifted Abu Dhar Ghifari to the interior of the desert at some distance from Madina.
During the first six years of the caliphate of Othman, the process of foreign conquests went apace, and the people were satisfied. During the later part of the caliphate of Othman, the process of foreign conquests came to a grinding halt and discontentment began to mount among the people. The government of Othman was accused of nepotism, corruption and inefficiency. A crisis was reached in 656 C.E. when the malcontents from Egypt, Kufa, and Basra marched to Madina to demand the redress of their grievances. A body of the mal-contents approached Ali and requested him to bring their grievances to the notice of the Caliph. Ali visited Othman and said:
O Caliph, the people bid me expostulate with you, yet what can I say to you, son-in-law as you were of the Holy Prophet and his bosom friend, and you already know what I know. The way lies plain and wide before you, but perhaps your eyes are closed and you cannot see it. If blood is once shed it will not cease to flow till the Day of Judgment. The right will be blotted, and treason would rage like the foaming waves of the sea.
Ali observed that the complaint of the people was that the Caliph had appointed his close relatives to the highest offices under the State. Othman stated that if he had appointed some of his relatives they were competent people who had delivered goods. He added that Muawiyah had been appointed as the Governor of Syria by Umar and not by him. Ali said that Umar kept the Governors under strict control but under him the Governors had become independent and they were doing what pleased them. Othman promised that he would make the necessary amends.
Othman deputed special emissaries to go to the provinces and inquire into the complaints of the people. Muhammad b Muslima was deputed to Kufa, Usama b Zaid to Basra, Abdul Rahman b Umar to Syria. and Ammar b Yaser to Egypt. Muhammad b Muslima; Usama b Zaid and Abdul Rahman b Umar reported that the complaints of the people were frivolous, and there was nothing wrong with the administration. Ammar b Yaser formed the view that the complaints of the people were genuine, and instead of returning to Madina he chose to stay in Egypt. On the occasion of the Hajj in 655 C.E. Othman asked those who had any grievance to come to Makkah when their complaints would be looked in. He asked the Governors of the various provinces to come to Makkah well prepared to meet the charges leveled by the people against the provincial administration. No complaints were made on the occasion of the Hajj keeping in view the sanctity of the occasion. When Othman returned from the pilgrimage the mal-contents from various provinces gathered in large numbers in Madina. These people contacted Ali, Talha and Zubair. Othman approached Ali to use his influence with the mal-contents to disperse. Ali approached the people, and they complained that the previous instructions issued by the Caliph to the Governor of Egypt had no effect, and they would not disperse unless the Governor was removed. Thereupon Othman agreed to pass orders for the removal of Abdullah b Abi Sarh the Governor of Egypt. This satisfied the mar-contents end they dispersed.
After a few days the rebels returned to Madina again. They said that they had caught a slave of the Caliph who was carrying a letter to the Governor of Egypt asking him to execute the ring leaders of the rebels. The rebels brought this letter to Ali, who took it to Othman. Othman acknowledged that the letter bore his seal, but he denied all knowledge about the contents of the letter. According to one account the letter was in the handwriting of Marwan, Secretary to the Caliph. The letter remained a mystery, but the Caliph undertook to dismiss the officials at fault within three days. No action was taken within the stipulated period, and on the following Friday, Othman addressed the congregation. The Caliph criticized the rebels for having revolted against his authority and held that thereby they had invited the wrath of God, and in the Hereafter they would be doomed to hell. That led to a great uproar. The rebels threw stones at Othman who was wounded and was carried home in an unconscious state. Ali visited the Caliph, and tried to avert the crisis. The crisis deepened and the rebels blockaded the house of the Caliph. The siege lasted for some days. A rumor was circulated that the Caliph has asked the provincial governors to send some troops to Madina. When the rebels came to know that troops might soon arrive in Madina, they broke into the house of the Caliph and assassinated him. It was the seventeenth day of July in the year 656 C.E. corresponding to 18th Zulhijjah 35 AH. That was a tragedy too deep for tears which cast a dismal shadow on the subsequent history of Islam.
Othman deputed special emissaries to go to the provinces and inquire into the complaints of the people. Muhammad b Muslima was deputed to Kufa, Usama b Zaid to Basra, Abdul Rahman b Umar to Syria. and Ammar b Yaser to Egypt. Muhammad b Muslima; Usama b Zaid and Abdul Rahman b Umar reported that the complaints of the people were frivolous, and there was nothing wrong with the administration. Ammar b Yaser formed the view that the complaints of the people were genuine, and instead of returning to Madina he chose to stay in Egypt. On the occasion of the Hajj in 655 C.E. Othman asked those who had any grievance to come to Makkah when their complaints would be looked in. He asked the Governors of the various provinces to come to Makkah well prepared to meet the charges leveled by the people against the provincial administration. No complaints were made on the occasion of the Hajj keeping in view the sanctity of the occasion. When Othman returned from the pilgrimage the mal-contents from various provinces gathered in large numbers in Madina. These people contacted Ali, Talha and Zubair. Othman approached Ali to use his influence with the mal-contents to disperse. Ali approached the people, and they complained that the previous instructions issued by the Caliph to the Governor of Egypt had no effect, and they would not disperse unless the Governor was removed. Thereupon Othman agreed to pass orders for the removal of Abdullah b Abi Sarh the Governor of Egypt. This satisfied the mar-contents end they dispersed.
After a few days the rebels returned to Madina again. They said that they had caught a slave of the Caliph who was carrying a letter to the Governor of Egypt asking him to execute the ring leaders of the rebels. The rebels brought this letter to Ali, who took it to Othman. Othman acknowledged that the letter bore his seal, but he denied all knowledge about the contents of the letter. According to one account the letter was in the handwriting of Marwan, Secretary to the Caliph. The letter remained a mystery, but the Caliph undertook to dismiss the officials at fault within three days. No action was taken within the stipulated period, and on the following Friday, Othman addressed the congregation. The Caliph criticized the rebels for having revolted against his authority and held that thereby they had invited the wrath of God, and in the Hereafter they would be doomed to hell. That led to a great uproar. The rebels threw stones at Othman who was wounded and was carried home in an unconscious state. Ali visited the Caliph, and tried to avert the crisis. The crisis deepened and the rebels blockaded the house of the Caliph. The siege lasted for some days. A rumor was circulated that the Caliph has asked the provincial governors to send some troops to Madina. When the rebels came to know that troops might soon arrive in Madina, they broke into the house of the Caliph and assassinated him. It was the seventeenth day of July in the year 656 C.E. corresponding to 18th Zulhijjah 35 AH. That was a tragedy too deep for tears which cast a dismal shadow on the subsequent history of Islam.
Ali as Calipah
Rashidun Caliphate at its peak
The Egyptians waited on Ali, and requested him to accept the office of the Caliph. He declined the offer and said that someone else should be elected as the Caliph. He assured them that whosoever was elected as the Caliph he would pay allegiance to him. Some prominent companions of the Holy Prophet also waited on Ali, and tried to persuade him to accept the office. Ali thanked them for their regard of him, but did not agree to accept the office. On the refusal of Ali, the rebels contacted Zubair and Talha, and offered them the caliphate. Like Ali, they also refused to accept the office. The rebels next approached the Ansars, and requested them to choose a Caliph from among themselves. They too refused the offer. They were of the opinion that in the presence of Ali, no one else deserved to be elected as the Caliph. The rebels waited on Ali again, and tried to persuade him to reconsider his decision. He maintained his previous decision and persisted in declining the offer. The rebels next approached Saad b Abi Waqas, Saeed b Zaid, and Abdullah b Umar to accept the caliphate. All of them refused to accept the office. There was now a complete deadlock in the matter of the election of the Caliph. The rebels thereupon gave the ultimatum that unless the people of Madina chose the Caliph within the next twenty-four hours they would be forced to take some drastic action.
In order to resolve the deadlock, all the Muslims assembled in the Prophet's mosque. The people raised slogans in favor of Ali. The leader of the Egyptian rebels took the stage. He said they had risen against the caliphate of Othman because the administration had become loose, and the grievances of the people had piled up. He added that it was necessary that the Muslims should choose a new Caliph in succession to Othman, and the man they should choose for the office should be conspicuous for his learning, bravery, piety and nearness to the Holy Prophet. He observed that Ali was the only person who fulfilled these qualities. Thereafter he went to Ali, requested him to stretch his hand. When Ali stretched his hand the people rushed to offer allegiance to him. This process went on for several hours, and the people vociferously welcomed the election of Ali as the Caliph in 656.
After Ali had assumed office, the rebels left for their home towns. The departure of the refuels brought no peace to the city of Madina. The Umayyads who bad consolidated their position in Syria raised the cry of vengeance for the blood of Othman. The blood stained clothes of Othman, and the fingers of his wife, Naila, which had been cut by the rioters while she defended were exhibited in the mosque at Damascus. The Umayyads incited the emotions of the people to a high pitch and they declared with due solemnity that they would not rest content until the death of Othman had been avenged. The cry of the Umayyads raised in Damascus found its echo in Madina and Makkah as well, and many persons in Madina and Makkah also joined the chorus for vengeance for the blood of Othman. Talha and Zubair two prominent companions who had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali supported the call for vengeance. Even Ayesha, the favorite wife of the Holy Prophet joined the camp which raised the cry for vengeance.
The assassination of Othman was a very tragic event in the annals of Islam. Particular sanctity is attached to the office of the Caliph, and if the Caliphs were to be murdered in cold blood as in the case of Othman, that boded ill for the Muslim polity. According to the Islamic law the heirs of a dead person have the right to claim blood money (Qasas) for such murder. It is the obligation of the State to enforce such right. In view of this legal position, the heirs of Othman had a prima facie case to claim vengeance for the murder of Othman. The law of "Qasas" applies in a normal case of murder when the person committing the murder can be apprehended. When the case is complex, and murder cannot be attributed to a particular person or persons, the law of Qasas would not apply in the conventional sense. The assassination of Othman was not a simple murder, it was in fact a revolt and coup d'etat. The natural law is that where a revolt fails, the rebels have to pay for such revolt with their lives. On the other hand where the revolt succeeds, the rebels capture power, and there is no question of taking any action against them for they are the victors, and the victors cannot be galled to account for any bloodshed that they might have caused necessary for their victory. In this case the revolt against Othman had been successful; Othman had been killed and the power had been captured by the rebels. The rebels voluntarily transferred the power captured by them to the people, and asked them to elect the Caliph. The people elected Ali as the Caliph. The people in this case exercised the power delegated to them by the rebels, and as such Ali owed his election to the rebels. In the circumstances the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman had become infructuous and it could not be raised before Ali.On assuming the caliphate, Ali decided to depose the provincial governors appointed by Othman, and appoint new Governors in their stead. Some of the Governors like Muawiyah in Syria had been in office for more or less twenty years and had grown too powerful. Such concentration of power in a single person was fraught with danger to the body politics, and Ali felt that in the interests of the State it was necessary that there should be a change in the provincial governors. As a matter of fact one of the main allegations against Othman which had triggered off the revolt was nepotism in the appointment of Governors. Ali felt that even if Othman had any justification for the appointment of his favorites as Governors, such justification was no longer there after his death. As such a change was necessary in general interest. Because of the unfortunate revolt against Othman, the administration stood shattered in some parts of the country. For the proper rehabilitation of administration a change in personnel was essential. Ali had noticed that for some time past the Muslims had departed from the austere way of the life of Islam, and had taken to the luxurious way of living borrowed from the non-Muslims. Ali had a program for the restoration of Islam to its pristine purity. For the implementation of such program likely to have political, religious and social repercussions it was necessary that Ali should have, as the provincial heads, persons in whom he had confidence and who could be depended upon to carry out his policies into action. Ali did not wish to give the impression that he intended to victimize any particular individual; his proposal accordingly envisaged the deposition of all the existing Governors and their replacement by new men of established integrity.
Mughira b Shuaba was considered to be a wise man among the Arabs. He advised Ali that he should not take the hasty step of deposing all the Governors at the outset of his caliphate. He suggested that Ali should bide his time, and he should transfer or depose the Governors after he had consolidated his own position. Ali advanced his arguments in justification of the proposal to depose the Governors. The discussion lasted for a few hours, but it proved to be indecisive. Ali did not agree with the view of Mughira. The meeting on the first day came to close with the observation that they would meet the following day and reconsider the matter. When Mughira came to see Ali the following day, he said that he had reconsidered the matter and he had come to the conclusion that provincial governors should be deposed forthwith.
Abdullah b Abbas, a cousin of Ali came to see him from Makkah. Ibn Abbas was very emphatic in his counsel that Ali should not take the hasty steps of deposing the Governors. He said that with the assassination of Othman the prestige of the central government had fallen low, and it was necessary that its prestige should be re-established before any attempt was made to remove the Governors. Ibn Abbas observed that in principle Ali was right that he should have Governors who enjoyed his confidence, but in view of the unsettled conditions when the people in the provinces, particularly Syria, had yet to take the oath of allegiance to him. The proper course was that the orders for the deposition of the Governors should be held up till the people in all the provinces had taken the oath of allegiance to him. He said that Muawiyah was strongly entrenched in power in Syria, and it any orders for his deposition were passed he would defy them. Ali said that he wanted him Ibn Abbas to be appointed as the Governor of Syria. Ibn Abbas said that he could not accept the appointment, for Muawiyah would not allow him to take charge. The difficulty in this respect, was that, while Muawiyah had a force at his disposal, the central government had no force at its disposal at that stage to take the field if any provincial governor chose to defy the orders of the Caliph. Ali observed that Mughira had originally offered advice against the deposition of the Governors but on reconsideration he had favored the proposal for the deposition of the governors. Ibn Abbas said that the advice that he had offered in the first instance was based on sincerity, and he withdrew his advice because of some ulterior motives.
In spite of what Ibn Abbas advised, Ali issued orders for the deposition of the Governors. Ali appointed Suhail b Hanif as the Governor of Syria; Saad b Ubaidah as the Governor of Egypt; Ummara b Shahab as the Governor of Kufa; Othman b Hanif as the Governor of Basra; and Abdullah b Abbas as the Governor of Yemen. When the nominee of Ali went to Basra, he was able to assume the charge, and no resistance was offered to him. Similarly there was no resistance to the new Governor in Egypt, and he assumed charge without any difficulty. Abdullah b Abbas succeeded in assuming the charge in Yemen, but the previous Governor escaped to Makkah and carried away the entire treasure with him. When the nominee of Ali for the governor of Syria reached Tabuk on the border of Syria, he was met by the Syrian force, who advised him to go back as they did not acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Similarly the nominee of Ali to the governor ship of Kufa had to return to Madina after having failed to assume the charge of his office.
Thus at the outset of his rule as Caliph Ali had to face a crisis. The failure of the nominees of Ali to assume charge implied a political schism in the body politics of Islam. The situation that emerged on the ground was that the Governors appointed by Ali assumed office in Egypt, Basra and Yemen, and the people in these provinces took the oath of allegiance to Ali. The people of Kufa took the oath of allegiance to Ali, but did not want any change in their Governor, and they made the nominee of Ali go back. Syria refused to acknowledge the authority of Ali. In Makkah the position was confused. In Makkah some persons offered allegiance to Ali, but the majority of the Quraish withheld their allegiance to Ali. It appears that at that stage, Ali did not appoint a Governor for Makkah, and the Governor appointed by Othman continued in office. He did not offer allegiance to Ali. Syria was definitely hostile to Ali. Kufa was not hostile, but as the people of Kufa had played a leading role in the assassination of Othman and the election of Ali, they wanted that Ali should be subservient to them. Makkah did not want to defy Ali, but it did not want to support him either. At the outset of his caliphate Ali had to force an administrative crisis in the country. Among the historians there is some controversy on the point whether in the deposition of Governors' Ali acted rashly or otherwise. Some of the writers have taken the view that as advised by Ibn Abbas be should have bided his time and deferred the deposition of Governors. If we study the question in the light of what happened subsequently we arrive at the conclusion that there was nothing wrong in what Ali did. Muwayiah had no intention of owing allegiance to Ali and if had been allowed to carry on as a Governor of Ali, he would have been a source of greater trouble for Ali. By such deposition, Ali we able to establish his authority in a greater part of the country. If Ali had succeeded in consolidating his rule in those provinces where his nominees held the office, he could have overpowered Syria without much difficulty. Unfortunately other complications took place, and Ali had to face trouble oven in provinces where his Governors held office.
The failure of the nominees of Ali to assume office as the Governors of Syria and Kufa was a great challenge for Ali. Musa, the Governor of Kufa, tried to temporize though he acknowledged the authority of Ali. In Syria the story was different. To start with the stand of Muawiyah was that he would acknowledge the caliphate of Ali after those who were responsible for the assassination of Othman had been brought to book. Ali sent an emissary to Muawiyah to explain to him the position. He assured him that every possible effort would be made to trace the murderers of Othman. He observed that this would need some time. He wanted the support of Muawiyah in tracing the culprits. He advised that in the meantime, Muawiyah should step aside from the office of the Governor and cooperate with the nominee of the central government in the interests of the solidarity of Islam. He pointed out that any dissentions among the Muslims at the stage would work to the advantage of the enemies of Islam.Muawiyah detained the emissary of Ali for over three months. In the meantime he whipped up his propaganda campaign exploiting the murder of Othman. He sent his agents to Makkah, and other parts of the country to relate the story of the assassination of Othman in pathetic terms, and win the sympathy of the people. As the propaganda gathered momentum Ali came to be accused of being an accomplice in the murder of Othman. The burden of the propaganda was that as the hands of Ali were dyed with the blood of Othman he was not qualified to be the Caliph, and those who had withheld their allegiance to him were justified in their refusal to acknowledge his authority.
After three months, Muawiyah allowed the emissary of Ali to return to Madina. He said that he would be sending his own emissary with a message for Ali. The letter of Muawiyah was brought to Madina by a Bedouin chief Kabisa. The cover bore the address
"From Muawiyah to Ali". When the cover was opened, it contained a blank paper with no writing thereon. In a fit of anger, Ali asked the bearer what did that mean? Kabisa pleaded for the safety of his life before he could answer the question. Ali said that he was free to speak, and he had his promise of safety. On this assurance the messenger said: "Know you then that there are no less than 60,000 Syrians whose beards are wet with tears, and who are rallying around Othman's bloody shirt which they have made their war standard, have armed themselves and are bent on avenging the murder of Othman".
On hearing these words the anger of Ali knew no bounds but he controlled his anger and said, "This is pure sedition." Someone from among the congregation shouted "Kill the Syrian messenger for his impudence," At this Kabisa took to heels and retorted, "Four thousand chosen warriors are near at hand. Take care of your homes and hearths." Ali said to the envoy, "Be gone, for I have promised you the safety of your life".
Kabisa went away, but the defiant attitude of Muawiyah was a great challenge for Ali. To those of the Muslims who were present in the mosque, Ali addressed in the mosque. In order to meet the challenge of Muawiyah, Ali ordered the raising of levies with a view to undertaking an expedition against Syria. Dispatches were sent to the various provincial governors to send reinforcements and provide whatever succor they could. Ali as Caliph issued the decree of Jihad and exhorted the people to join the campaign in large numbers for the vindication of the truth of Islam. When the Muslims of Madina gathered in the mosque, he addressed them in the following terms:
In order to resolve the deadlock, all the Muslims assembled in the Prophet's mosque. The people raised slogans in favor of Ali. The leader of the Egyptian rebels took the stage. He said they had risen against the caliphate of Othman because the administration had become loose, and the grievances of the people had piled up. He added that it was necessary that the Muslims should choose a new Caliph in succession to Othman, and the man they should choose for the office should be conspicuous for his learning, bravery, piety and nearness to the Holy Prophet. He observed that Ali was the only person who fulfilled these qualities. Thereafter he went to Ali, requested him to stretch his hand. When Ali stretched his hand the people rushed to offer allegiance to him. This process went on for several hours, and the people vociferously welcomed the election of Ali as the Caliph in 656.
After Ali had assumed office, the rebels left for their home towns. The departure of the refuels brought no peace to the city of Madina. The Umayyads who bad consolidated their position in Syria raised the cry of vengeance for the blood of Othman. The blood stained clothes of Othman, and the fingers of his wife, Naila, which had been cut by the rioters while she defended were exhibited in the mosque at Damascus. The Umayyads incited the emotions of the people to a high pitch and they declared with due solemnity that they would not rest content until the death of Othman had been avenged. The cry of the Umayyads raised in Damascus found its echo in Madina and Makkah as well, and many persons in Madina and Makkah also joined the chorus for vengeance for the blood of Othman. Talha and Zubair two prominent companions who had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali supported the call for vengeance. Even Ayesha, the favorite wife of the Holy Prophet joined the camp which raised the cry for vengeance.
The assassination of Othman was a very tragic event in the annals of Islam. Particular sanctity is attached to the office of the Caliph, and if the Caliphs were to be murdered in cold blood as in the case of Othman, that boded ill for the Muslim polity. According to the Islamic law the heirs of a dead person have the right to claim blood money (Qasas) for such murder. It is the obligation of the State to enforce such right. In view of this legal position, the heirs of Othman had a prima facie case to claim vengeance for the murder of Othman. The law of "Qasas" applies in a normal case of murder when the person committing the murder can be apprehended. When the case is complex, and murder cannot be attributed to a particular person or persons, the law of Qasas would not apply in the conventional sense. The assassination of Othman was not a simple murder, it was in fact a revolt and coup d'etat. The natural law is that where a revolt fails, the rebels have to pay for such revolt with their lives. On the other hand where the revolt succeeds, the rebels capture power, and there is no question of taking any action against them for they are the victors, and the victors cannot be galled to account for any bloodshed that they might have caused necessary for their victory. In this case the revolt against Othman had been successful; Othman had been killed and the power had been captured by the rebels. The rebels voluntarily transferred the power captured by them to the people, and asked them to elect the Caliph. The people elected Ali as the Caliph. The people in this case exercised the power delegated to them by the rebels, and as such Ali owed his election to the rebels. In the circumstances the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman had become infructuous and it could not be raised before Ali.On assuming the caliphate, Ali decided to depose the provincial governors appointed by Othman, and appoint new Governors in their stead. Some of the Governors like Muawiyah in Syria had been in office for more or less twenty years and had grown too powerful. Such concentration of power in a single person was fraught with danger to the body politics, and Ali felt that in the interests of the State it was necessary that there should be a change in the provincial governors. As a matter of fact one of the main allegations against Othman which had triggered off the revolt was nepotism in the appointment of Governors. Ali felt that even if Othman had any justification for the appointment of his favorites as Governors, such justification was no longer there after his death. As such a change was necessary in general interest. Because of the unfortunate revolt against Othman, the administration stood shattered in some parts of the country. For the proper rehabilitation of administration a change in personnel was essential. Ali had noticed that for some time past the Muslims had departed from the austere way of the life of Islam, and had taken to the luxurious way of living borrowed from the non-Muslims. Ali had a program for the restoration of Islam to its pristine purity. For the implementation of such program likely to have political, religious and social repercussions it was necessary that Ali should have, as the provincial heads, persons in whom he had confidence and who could be depended upon to carry out his policies into action. Ali did not wish to give the impression that he intended to victimize any particular individual; his proposal accordingly envisaged the deposition of all the existing Governors and their replacement by new men of established integrity.
Mughira b Shuaba was considered to be a wise man among the Arabs. He advised Ali that he should not take the hasty step of deposing all the Governors at the outset of his caliphate. He suggested that Ali should bide his time, and he should transfer or depose the Governors after he had consolidated his own position. Ali advanced his arguments in justification of the proposal to depose the Governors. The discussion lasted for a few hours, but it proved to be indecisive. Ali did not agree with the view of Mughira. The meeting on the first day came to close with the observation that they would meet the following day and reconsider the matter. When Mughira came to see Ali the following day, he said that he had reconsidered the matter and he had come to the conclusion that provincial governors should be deposed forthwith.
Abdullah b Abbas, a cousin of Ali came to see him from Makkah. Ibn Abbas was very emphatic in his counsel that Ali should not take the hasty steps of deposing the Governors. He said that with the assassination of Othman the prestige of the central government had fallen low, and it was necessary that its prestige should be re-established before any attempt was made to remove the Governors. Ibn Abbas observed that in principle Ali was right that he should have Governors who enjoyed his confidence, but in view of the unsettled conditions when the people in the provinces, particularly Syria, had yet to take the oath of allegiance to him. The proper course was that the orders for the deposition of the Governors should be held up till the people in all the provinces had taken the oath of allegiance to him. He said that Muawiyah was strongly entrenched in power in Syria, and it any orders for his deposition were passed he would defy them. Ali said that he wanted him Ibn Abbas to be appointed as the Governor of Syria. Ibn Abbas said that he could not accept the appointment, for Muawiyah would not allow him to take charge. The difficulty in this respect, was that, while Muawiyah had a force at his disposal, the central government had no force at its disposal at that stage to take the field if any provincial governor chose to defy the orders of the Caliph. Ali observed that Mughira had originally offered advice against the deposition of the Governors but on reconsideration he had favored the proposal for the deposition of the governors. Ibn Abbas said that the advice that he had offered in the first instance was based on sincerity, and he withdrew his advice because of some ulterior motives.
In spite of what Ibn Abbas advised, Ali issued orders for the deposition of the Governors. Ali appointed Suhail b Hanif as the Governor of Syria; Saad b Ubaidah as the Governor of Egypt; Ummara b Shahab as the Governor of Kufa; Othman b Hanif as the Governor of Basra; and Abdullah b Abbas as the Governor of Yemen. When the nominee of Ali went to Basra, he was able to assume the charge, and no resistance was offered to him. Similarly there was no resistance to the new Governor in Egypt, and he assumed charge without any difficulty. Abdullah b Abbas succeeded in assuming the charge in Yemen, but the previous Governor escaped to Makkah and carried away the entire treasure with him. When the nominee of Ali for the governor of Syria reached Tabuk on the border of Syria, he was met by the Syrian force, who advised him to go back as they did not acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Similarly the nominee of Ali to the governor ship of Kufa had to return to Madina after having failed to assume the charge of his office.
Thus at the outset of his rule as Caliph Ali had to face a crisis. The failure of the nominees of Ali to assume charge implied a political schism in the body politics of Islam. The situation that emerged on the ground was that the Governors appointed by Ali assumed office in Egypt, Basra and Yemen, and the people in these provinces took the oath of allegiance to Ali. The people of Kufa took the oath of allegiance to Ali, but did not want any change in their Governor, and they made the nominee of Ali go back. Syria refused to acknowledge the authority of Ali. In Makkah the position was confused. In Makkah some persons offered allegiance to Ali, but the majority of the Quraish withheld their allegiance to Ali. It appears that at that stage, Ali did not appoint a Governor for Makkah, and the Governor appointed by Othman continued in office. He did not offer allegiance to Ali. Syria was definitely hostile to Ali. Kufa was not hostile, but as the people of Kufa had played a leading role in the assassination of Othman and the election of Ali, they wanted that Ali should be subservient to them. Makkah did not want to defy Ali, but it did not want to support him either. At the outset of his caliphate Ali had to force an administrative crisis in the country. Among the historians there is some controversy on the point whether in the deposition of Governors' Ali acted rashly or otherwise. Some of the writers have taken the view that as advised by Ibn Abbas be should have bided his time and deferred the deposition of Governors. If we study the question in the light of what happened subsequently we arrive at the conclusion that there was nothing wrong in what Ali did. Muwayiah had no intention of owing allegiance to Ali and if had been allowed to carry on as a Governor of Ali, he would have been a source of greater trouble for Ali. By such deposition, Ali we able to establish his authority in a greater part of the country. If Ali had succeeded in consolidating his rule in those provinces where his nominees held the office, he could have overpowered Syria without much difficulty. Unfortunately other complications took place, and Ali had to face trouble oven in provinces where his Governors held office.
The failure of the nominees of Ali to assume office as the Governors of Syria and Kufa was a great challenge for Ali. Musa, the Governor of Kufa, tried to temporize though he acknowledged the authority of Ali. In Syria the story was different. To start with the stand of Muawiyah was that he would acknowledge the caliphate of Ali after those who were responsible for the assassination of Othman had been brought to book. Ali sent an emissary to Muawiyah to explain to him the position. He assured him that every possible effort would be made to trace the murderers of Othman. He observed that this would need some time. He wanted the support of Muawiyah in tracing the culprits. He advised that in the meantime, Muawiyah should step aside from the office of the Governor and cooperate with the nominee of the central government in the interests of the solidarity of Islam. He pointed out that any dissentions among the Muslims at the stage would work to the advantage of the enemies of Islam.Muawiyah detained the emissary of Ali for over three months. In the meantime he whipped up his propaganda campaign exploiting the murder of Othman. He sent his agents to Makkah, and other parts of the country to relate the story of the assassination of Othman in pathetic terms, and win the sympathy of the people. As the propaganda gathered momentum Ali came to be accused of being an accomplice in the murder of Othman. The burden of the propaganda was that as the hands of Ali were dyed with the blood of Othman he was not qualified to be the Caliph, and those who had withheld their allegiance to him were justified in their refusal to acknowledge his authority.
After three months, Muawiyah allowed the emissary of Ali to return to Madina. He said that he would be sending his own emissary with a message for Ali. The letter of Muawiyah was brought to Madina by a Bedouin chief Kabisa. The cover bore the address
"From Muawiyah to Ali". When the cover was opened, it contained a blank paper with no writing thereon. In a fit of anger, Ali asked the bearer what did that mean? Kabisa pleaded for the safety of his life before he could answer the question. Ali said that he was free to speak, and he had his promise of safety. On this assurance the messenger said: "Know you then that there are no less than 60,000 Syrians whose beards are wet with tears, and who are rallying around Othman's bloody shirt which they have made their war standard, have armed themselves and are bent on avenging the murder of Othman".
On hearing these words the anger of Ali knew no bounds but he controlled his anger and said, "This is pure sedition." Someone from among the congregation shouted "Kill the Syrian messenger for his impudence," At this Kabisa took to heels and retorted, "Four thousand chosen warriors are near at hand. Take care of your homes and hearths." Ali said to the envoy, "Be gone, for I have promised you the safety of your life".
Kabisa went away, but the defiant attitude of Muawiyah was a great challenge for Ali. To those of the Muslims who were present in the mosque, Ali addressed in the mosque. In order to meet the challenge of Muawiyah, Ali ordered the raising of levies with a view to undertaking an expedition against Syria. Dispatches were sent to the various provincial governors to send reinforcements and provide whatever succor they could. Ali as Caliph issued the decree of Jihad and exhorted the people to join the campaign in large numbers for the vindication of the truth of Islam. When the Muslims of Madina gathered in the mosque, he addressed them in the following terms:
"Now or never If you fail to fight you will lose power, and these accursed schismatics will destroy the solidarity of Islam. I have, however, high hopes in the mercy of God, Who will set right that which these people are bent on setting wrong."
The appeal did not have the desired result, and the response to Ali's call to arms in the defense of Islam was poor. Ali felt grieved at the apathy of the people of Madina to Jihad. He called a special gathering of the people of Madina in the Prophet's mosque, and addressed them on the importance of Jihad. His speech is preserved in the collection of his writing bearing the title Nahj-ul-Balagha.
From the historical accounts and the biographies of Ali that have come down to us, it is not very clear what exactly happened which made Ali address the people of Madina in such strong and bitter words. Reading between the lines of the speech of Ali, it seems that he felt annoyed with the attitude of the people of Madina, and he even reproached and cursed them. It appears that Ali had a plan for an immediate attack on Syria. But the plan did not materialize as adequate response from the people of Madina was not forthcoming. From the account of Tabari it appears that Ali had in fact given an order for the march to Syria. He had handed over the war standard to his son Muhammad bin Hanifa. He had appointed Abdullah bin Abbas, Umar bin Abi Salma, and Abu Laila bin Umar bin Al Jarah as his Generals to command the various wings of the army. Ali was to lead the army in person and he had appointed Qatam bin Abbas as the Governor of Madina during his absence. The people of Madina were loath that the Muslims should fight among themselves, and before the army of Ali could march to Syria many persons chose to withdraw. In the circumstances for one reason or the other, the expedition to Syria was delayed, and this delay worked to the advantage of Muawiyiah and the disadvantage of Ali. Things became further difficult when Ali had to face another crisis, namely the defection of Talha and Zubair who had sworn allegiance to him.
Talha and Zubair were two eminent companions of the Holy Prophet. Talha belonged to the Taim section of the Quraish. Talha became a Muslim at the young age of fifteen. He took part in the battles fought under the command of the Holy Prophet. He played a conspicuous part in the Battle of Uhud, and received many wounds in warding off the attacks on the Holy Prophet. He was married to a daughter of Abu Bakr. He was a magnate and was very rich. His daily income is reported to be over a thousand dirhams. He was critical of the administration of Othman and was popular with the rebels from Basra. After the assassination of Othman the rebels offered him the caliphate, but he declined the offer on account of the uncertainty of the situation.
Zubair bin Al-Awwam was a nephew of Khadija. His mother Safia was a paternal aunt of the Holy Prophet. He was thus a first cousin of the Holy Prophet. He fought in most of the battles of early Islam. He was a rich merchant. He was popular with the people of Kufa, and when Othman was assassinated the rebels from Kufa approached him to accept the caliphate in succession to Othman. He declined the offer because of the uncertainty of the situation. The Holy Prophet gave tidings of paradise to ten of his companions during their lifetime, and these ten included Talha and Zubair.
When Ali was elected as the Caliph both Talha and Zubair took the oath of allegiance to him. Accounts differ as to the circumstances under which they took the oath of allegiance to Ali. According to one account they took the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily and were the first persons to take such oath. According to another account they took the oath of allegiance to Ali subject to the condition that they were to share power with Ali. According to yet another account when the oath of allegiance to Ali was taken in the mosque, Talha and Zubair shut themselves in their houses, but the rebels took them from their houses to the mosque and forced them to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. Talha had received many wounds in the wars, and his hand was mangled. When Talha offered his allegiance with the mangled hand, some of the Arabs prone to omens felt that such oath with a mangled hand did not augur well for the future.
When the oath of allegiance was taken to Ali, the state of affairs in Madina was not normal. The majority of the Muslims in Madina took the oath of allegiance, but a few persons abstained from taking the oath. These included Saad bin Abi Waqas; Abdullah bin Umar; Usama bin said; and Muhammad bin Musalama Ansari. They, however, assured Ali that they would not create any trouble for him. On such assurance, Ali did not press for their allegiance.
As the crisis in Madina deepened, and Ali gave the call for military action against Muawiyah, even the people who had taken the oath of allegiance did not respond to the call. The people of Madina were generally loath that the Muslims should fight against Muslims. Talha and Zubair met Ali and suggested to him that if one of them was appointed as the Governor of Kufa and the other was appointed as the Governor of Basra they would help in the consolidation of his rule. Ali did not accept the offer. He preferred to appoint his own men as the provincial Governors. He told Talha and Zubair that he wanted them to remain at Madina by his side as his Counselors. Frustrated in their attempt to get governorships, Talha and Zubair felt embittered. They requested Ali to permit them to go to Makkah for performing the Umra. Ali refused the permission on the ground that he wanted their presence in Madina in public interest. Thereupon Talha and Zubair escaped from Madina secretly. At Makkah, Talha and Zubair joined Ayesha. Both of them were related to Ayesha. One sister of Ayesha was married to Zubair and another sister was married to Talha.
Ali felt much disturbed at the defection of Talha and Zubair. He felt that Talha and Zubair had defected under some misunderstanding. He decided that instead of taking any punitive action against them, an effort should be made to conciliate them. He accordingly addressed them a letter and sent it to them at Makkah through a special messengers. This letter had no effect on Talha and Zubair. In Makkah they joined Ayesha, and raised the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman.
When Othman was assassinated, Ayesha was not in Madina. She had gone to Makkah a few weeks earlier for performing the pilgrimage. She came to know of the assassination of Othman and the election of Ali as the Caliph when she was on the way back to Madina. She was much shocked at the murder of Othman. On hearing of the news instead of proceeding to Madina, she retraced her steps, and returned to Makkah. Othman had been a popular figure among the Quraish of Makkah. When in Syria, Muawiyyah raised the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman, the cry was echoed in Makkah as well. The people of Makkah temporized in taking the oath of allegiance to Ali. The tendency of the people of Makkah was to wait and watch further developments. The people of Makkah had at that stage no leader with them under whose direction they could take a specific course of action.
The return of Ayesha to Makkah changed the situation. In view of the great prestige and respect that she commanded as the "Mother of the Faithful," she soon assumed the role of a leader, and the people assembled around her in large number. During the lifetime of Othman she had been critical of his policies, but after his death she decided to espouse his cause, and join in the cry seeking vengeance for his blood.
The fiery address of Ayesha was virtually the call to war. It set a match to the smoldering fire of discontent among the people. The first man to respond to the call of Ayesha was Abdullah bin Aamar al-Hadhrami. He was the Governor of Makkah appointed by Othman. In view of the uncertain state of affairs in Makkah, Ali had not replaced him so far by a nominee of his own. He knew that with Ali as the Caliph he could not hold his office for long. He, therefore, placed all resources available to him as the Governor of Makkah at the disposal of Ayesha for any war that she might wage to seek vengeance for the blood of Othman. Yala bin Umayya the ex-Governor Yemen who had been deposed by Ali responded enthusiastically to the call for war. On his deposition, he had brought all the treasure of the province of Yemen with him. He placed this treasure at the disposal of Ayesha for financing the war project. Abdullah bin Aamar of the Umayyad section, the ex-Governor of Basra who had been deposed by Ali, also joined the confederates. All the Umayyads of Makkah, and those who had escaped from Madina after the assassination of Othman offered themselves for war service. These included Saeed bin Al Aas, Mughira bin Shuba, and Walid bin Uqba. Talha and Zubair who arrived from Madina in the meantime also joined the confederates. Both of them were related to Ayesha. One of the sisters of Ayesha was married to Zubair and another was married to Talha. They became the right hand men for Ayesha, and the Commanders of the force of Ayesha.
Within a short time, Ayesha was able to set up a war organization in opposition to Ali. Though the confederates raised the cry for avenging the murder of Othman, their real aim was to dethrone Ali. After building up a war organization, Ayesha and her party had to consider where the blow was to be struck. Ayesha was personally of the view that an attack should be led on Madina as it was expedient that the malady should be uprooted root and branch. Apparently her idea was to overthrow Ali and capture power Most of her followers were of the view that it would not be advisable that the wife of the Holy Prophet should lead an expedition against the city of the Holy Prophet and violate its sanctity. The Umayyads proposed that they should proceed to Syria and join Muawiyah. This view was not favored by the non-Umayyad followers of Ayesha, as such a step was likely to shift the balance of power in favor of Muawiyah, and strengthen his claim for the caliphate. Another proposal was that they should advance to Kufa. This proposal was dropped on the ground that it was uncertain how far the people of Kufa would support the war against Ali, particularly when most of the rebels responsible for the assassination of Othman belonged to Kufa. Talha suggested that he had considerable influence in Basra, and if they advanced to Basra, most of the people there would join them. This proposal was supported by Abdullah bin Aamar who had been the Governor of Basra and had been deposed by Ali. He said that be had many supporters in Basra and these people would join them in case they advanced to Basra. After a good deal of discussion and deliberation it was decided that they should in the first instance march to Basra, and should undertake further campaigns against Ali with Basra as the base.
A majority of the people of Makkah favored the confederates. A section of the population led by Abdullah bin Umar decided to remain neutral and favor no party. A small section favored Ali. Al Fazal, the wife of Abbas, and an uncle of Ali sent a letter to Ali through a special messenger informing him of the plan of Ayesha.
The confederates were able to raise an army three thousand strong from the people of Makkah. Envoys were sent to the tribes who inhabited the desert on the way to Basra to join the main army on the way.
As the troops assembled at Makkah, Ayesha addressed them. She exhorted them to fight for upholding the truth and the suppression of falsehood. She said that the assassination of Othman, the Caliph of the Muslims was a great challenge for the faithful, and they could not rest content till those guilty of the crime were brought to book and killed.
Talha and Zubair urged the troops to perform deeds of heroic gallantry which were the characteristics of Ghazis. They told them that they had left Madina and its people in a state of quandary. In Madina right had been mixed up with wrong in such a way that the people knew not in which way to turn. Talha and Zubair made out the point that in the circumstances it was for the people of Makkah to give the lead, and teach a lesson to the traitors who had assassinated the innocent Caliph, Othman.
The confederates justified their cause on the basis of the following verse of the Holy Quran:
From the historical accounts and the biographies of Ali that have come down to us, it is not very clear what exactly happened which made Ali address the people of Madina in such strong and bitter words. Reading between the lines of the speech of Ali, it seems that he felt annoyed with the attitude of the people of Madina, and he even reproached and cursed them. It appears that Ali had a plan for an immediate attack on Syria. But the plan did not materialize as adequate response from the people of Madina was not forthcoming. From the account of Tabari it appears that Ali had in fact given an order for the march to Syria. He had handed over the war standard to his son Muhammad bin Hanifa. He had appointed Abdullah bin Abbas, Umar bin Abi Salma, and Abu Laila bin Umar bin Al Jarah as his Generals to command the various wings of the army. Ali was to lead the army in person and he had appointed Qatam bin Abbas as the Governor of Madina during his absence. The people of Madina were loath that the Muslims should fight among themselves, and before the army of Ali could march to Syria many persons chose to withdraw. In the circumstances for one reason or the other, the expedition to Syria was delayed, and this delay worked to the advantage of Muawiyiah and the disadvantage of Ali. Things became further difficult when Ali had to face another crisis, namely the defection of Talha and Zubair who had sworn allegiance to him.
Talha and Zubair were two eminent companions of the Holy Prophet. Talha belonged to the Taim section of the Quraish. Talha became a Muslim at the young age of fifteen. He took part in the battles fought under the command of the Holy Prophet. He played a conspicuous part in the Battle of Uhud, and received many wounds in warding off the attacks on the Holy Prophet. He was married to a daughter of Abu Bakr. He was a magnate and was very rich. His daily income is reported to be over a thousand dirhams. He was critical of the administration of Othman and was popular with the rebels from Basra. After the assassination of Othman the rebels offered him the caliphate, but he declined the offer on account of the uncertainty of the situation.
Zubair bin Al-Awwam was a nephew of Khadija. His mother Safia was a paternal aunt of the Holy Prophet. He was thus a first cousin of the Holy Prophet. He fought in most of the battles of early Islam. He was a rich merchant. He was popular with the people of Kufa, and when Othman was assassinated the rebels from Kufa approached him to accept the caliphate in succession to Othman. He declined the offer because of the uncertainty of the situation. The Holy Prophet gave tidings of paradise to ten of his companions during their lifetime, and these ten included Talha and Zubair.
When Ali was elected as the Caliph both Talha and Zubair took the oath of allegiance to him. Accounts differ as to the circumstances under which they took the oath of allegiance to Ali. According to one account they took the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily and were the first persons to take such oath. According to another account they took the oath of allegiance to Ali subject to the condition that they were to share power with Ali. According to yet another account when the oath of allegiance to Ali was taken in the mosque, Talha and Zubair shut themselves in their houses, but the rebels took them from their houses to the mosque and forced them to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. Talha had received many wounds in the wars, and his hand was mangled. When Talha offered his allegiance with the mangled hand, some of the Arabs prone to omens felt that such oath with a mangled hand did not augur well for the future.
When the oath of allegiance was taken to Ali, the state of affairs in Madina was not normal. The majority of the Muslims in Madina took the oath of allegiance, but a few persons abstained from taking the oath. These included Saad bin Abi Waqas; Abdullah bin Umar; Usama bin said; and Muhammad bin Musalama Ansari. They, however, assured Ali that they would not create any trouble for him. On such assurance, Ali did not press for their allegiance.
As the crisis in Madina deepened, and Ali gave the call for military action against Muawiyah, even the people who had taken the oath of allegiance did not respond to the call. The people of Madina were generally loath that the Muslims should fight against Muslims. Talha and Zubair met Ali and suggested to him that if one of them was appointed as the Governor of Kufa and the other was appointed as the Governor of Basra they would help in the consolidation of his rule. Ali did not accept the offer. He preferred to appoint his own men as the provincial Governors. He told Talha and Zubair that he wanted them to remain at Madina by his side as his Counselors. Frustrated in their attempt to get governorships, Talha and Zubair felt embittered. They requested Ali to permit them to go to Makkah for performing the Umra. Ali refused the permission on the ground that he wanted their presence in Madina in public interest. Thereupon Talha and Zubair escaped from Madina secretly. At Makkah, Talha and Zubair joined Ayesha. Both of them were related to Ayesha. One sister of Ayesha was married to Zubair and another sister was married to Talha.
Ali felt much disturbed at the defection of Talha and Zubair. He felt that Talha and Zubair had defected under some misunderstanding. He decided that instead of taking any punitive action against them, an effort should be made to conciliate them. He accordingly addressed them a letter and sent it to them at Makkah through a special messengers. This letter had no effect on Talha and Zubair. In Makkah they joined Ayesha, and raised the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman.
When Othman was assassinated, Ayesha was not in Madina. She had gone to Makkah a few weeks earlier for performing the pilgrimage. She came to know of the assassination of Othman and the election of Ali as the Caliph when she was on the way back to Madina. She was much shocked at the murder of Othman. On hearing of the news instead of proceeding to Madina, she retraced her steps, and returned to Makkah. Othman had been a popular figure among the Quraish of Makkah. When in Syria, Muawiyyah raised the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman, the cry was echoed in Makkah as well. The people of Makkah temporized in taking the oath of allegiance to Ali. The tendency of the people of Makkah was to wait and watch further developments. The people of Makkah had at that stage no leader with them under whose direction they could take a specific course of action.
The return of Ayesha to Makkah changed the situation. In view of the great prestige and respect that she commanded as the "Mother of the Faithful," she soon assumed the role of a leader, and the people assembled around her in large number. During the lifetime of Othman she had been critical of his policies, but after his death she decided to espouse his cause, and join in the cry seeking vengeance for his blood.
The fiery address of Ayesha was virtually the call to war. It set a match to the smoldering fire of discontent among the people. The first man to respond to the call of Ayesha was Abdullah bin Aamar al-Hadhrami. He was the Governor of Makkah appointed by Othman. In view of the uncertain state of affairs in Makkah, Ali had not replaced him so far by a nominee of his own. He knew that with Ali as the Caliph he could not hold his office for long. He, therefore, placed all resources available to him as the Governor of Makkah at the disposal of Ayesha for any war that she might wage to seek vengeance for the blood of Othman. Yala bin Umayya the ex-Governor Yemen who had been deposed by Ali responded enthusiastically to the call for war. On his deposition, he had brought all the treasure of the province of Yemen with him. He placed this treasure at the disposal of Ayesha for financing the war project. Abdullah bin Aamar of the Umayyad section, the ex-Governor of Basra who had been deposed by Ali, also joined the confederates. All the Umayyads of Makkah, and those who had escaped from Madina after the assassination of Othman offered themselves for war service. These included Saeed bin Al Aas, Mughira bin Shuba, and Walid bin Uqba. Talha and Zubair who arrived from Madina in the meantime also joined the confederates. Both of them were related to Ayesha. One of the sisters of Ayesha was married to Zubair and another was married to Talha. They became the right hand men for Ayesha, and the Commanders of the force of Ayesha.
Within a short time, Ayesha was able to set up a war organization in opposition to Ali. Though the confederates raised the cry for avenging the murder of Othman, their real aim was to dethrone Ali. After building up a war organization, Ayesha and her party had to consider where the blow was to be struck. Ayesha was personally of the view that an attack should be led on Madina as it was expedient that the malady should be uprooted root and branch. Apparently her idea was to overthrow Ali and capture power Most of her followers were of the view that it would not be advisable that the wife of the Holy Prophet should lead an expedition against the city of the Holy Prophet and violate its sanctity. The Umayyads proposed that they should proceed to Syria and join Muawiyah. This view was not favored by the non-Umayyad followers of Ayesha, as such a step was likely to shift the balance of power in favor of Muawiyah, and strengthen his claim for the caliphate. Another proposal was that they should advance to Kufa. This proposal was dropped on the ground that it was uncertain how far the people of Kufa would support the war against Ali, particularly when most of the rebels responsible for the assassination of Othman belonged to Kufa. Talha suggested that he had considerable influence in Basra, and if they advanced to Basra, most of the people there would join them. This proposal was supported by Abdullah bin Aamar who had been the Governor of Basra and had been deposed by Ali. He said that be had many supporters in Basra and these people would join them in case they advanced to Basra. After a good deal of discussion and deliberation it was decided that they should in the first instance march to Basra, and should undertake further campaigns against Ali with Basra as the base.
A majority of the people of Makkah favored the confederates. A section of the population led by Abdullah bin Umar decided to remain neutral and favor no party. A small section favored Ali. Al Fazal, the wife of Abbas, and an uncle of Ali sent a letter to Ali through a special messenger informing him of the plan of Ayesha.
The confederates were able to raise an army three thousand strong from the people of Makkah. Envoys were sent to the tribes who inhabited the desert on the way to Basra to join the main army on the way.
As the troops assembled at Makkah, Ayesha addressed them. She exhorted them to fight for upholding the truth and the suppression of falsehood. She said that the assassination of Othman, the Caliph of the Muslims was a great challenge for the faithful, and they could not rest content till those guilty of the crime were brought to book and killed.
Talha and Zubair urged the troops to perform deeds of heroic gallantry which were the characteristics of Ghazis. They told them that they had left Madina and its people in a state of quandary. In Madina right had been mixed up with wrong in such a way that the people knew not in which way to turn. Talha and Zubair made out the point that in the circumstances it was for the people of Makkah to give the lead, and teach a lesson to the traitors who had assassinated the innocent Caliph, Othman.
The confederates justified their cause on the basis of the following verse of the Holy Quran:
And if two parties of the believers quarrel, make peace between them, but if one of them acts wrongly towards the other, fight that which acts wrongfully, until it returns to Allah's command. Then, if it returns, make peace between them with justice and act equitably, for Allah loves those who act equitably. [49:9]
Ayesha mounting on a camel took command of the army, and it set off on the march to Basra. The prominent women of Makkah traveled with Ayesha for some distance outside Makkah to see her off. These included Hafsa, another wife of the Holy Prophet. Hafsa intended to accompany Ayesha to Basra, but her brother Abdullah bin Umar persuaded her to return to Makkah, as in the war between the two parties of the Muslims it was expedient to remain neutral. As the women took leave of Ayesha, they wept bitterly because of the uncertainty of fortune that lay in store for the army of Makkah. Here a dead camel was sighted from which blood flew profusely. This was taken to be a bad omen indicating that as a result of the campaign they were undertaking much blood was likely to flow. According to the Arab chronicles the day of the departure of the army of the confederates for Basra came to be known as the "Day of Tears", on account of the heavy tears shed at the time of the departure of the troops.
The army of the confederates had hardly proceeded a few stages from Makkah when the followers of Talha and Zubair began to quarrel among themselves on the point as to who out of Talha and Zubair should become the Caliph in the event of victory. Ayesha tried to end the dispute by declaring that the issue was premature, and that at the proper time it was for the people of Madina to choose the Caliph as they had elected the previous Caliphs. Ayesha appointed a neutral person to lead the prayers. The quarrel, however, did its damage. Some of the people who belonged neither to the party of Talha, nor to that of Zubair came to feel that the war was being fought because of personal motives of Talha and Zubair. Some persons suggested that as they had taken up arms to avenge the blood of Othman it was proper that a son of Othman should be chosen as the Caliph. This suggestion was turned down by the followers of Talha and Zubair on the ground that only some veteran companion could be chosen as the Commander of the Faithful. Because of these quarrels doubts began to assail some of the people who had joined the ranks under the impression that they were going to fight in the cause of Islam. They felt uncertain as to where the truth lay. Both the sides claimed to fight for the truth and it was obvious that both of them could not be in the right at the same time. One of them was bound to be in the wrong, but it could not be said who exactly was in the wrong. On one side was the "Mother of the Faithful", and on the other side was the "Commander of the Faithful." In the circumstances the proper course for the faithful was not to support either party until things appeared in their true color. Saeed b Al Aas an ex-Governor of Kufa who had joined the army of the confederates thought it advisable to desert and return to Makkah. Some other persons also returned with him. In response to the battle cry "On to Basra to kill the murderers of Othman", Saeed said. "Why go so far. The objects of your vengeance, Talha and Zubair are riding on their camels before you; kill them and return home".
After forced marches the troops of Ayesha reached Basra and camped outside the city. The die was cast. Basra, heretofore a peaceful city had to face a storm, and become the theatre of an unfortunate civil war which was to lead to blood shed, and destroy unity amongst the Muslims.
When the army of Ayesha camped outside the city of Basra, Othman bin Hanif, the Alid Governor of Basra, sent a delegation from Basra to wait on Ayesha and ascertain from her the cause of her arrival there with an army. The delegation comprised two men, Imran bin Husain, and Abul Aswad. Ayesha received the delegation with due courtesy.
On return from Ayesha, Imran bin Husain advised Othman bin Hanif that he should not involve himself in war with Ayesha for she had talked in the language of peace, and not in that of war. Abul Aswad the other member of the delegation, who was a staunch supporter of Ali, advised Othman bin Hanif that as the Governor of Ali, he should fight against the enemies of Ali. Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, and rebelling against Ali their purpose in coming over to Basra with an army could not be based on peaceful motives.
Othman bin Hanif required the people of Basra to assemble in the mosque to consider what action should be taken against the confederates. The congregation was addressed in the first instance by Qais b Al Aqd. He was critical of the arrival of the confederates. He said that if these people had come to Basra to seek protection that was absurd for they themselves came from a place where even birds were assured of safety. He added that if they had come to seek vengeance for the blood of Othman, they should know that the people of Basra had not killed Othman. He exhorted the people of Basra to take up arms, and drive away the confederates from their city. Othman b Hanif addressed the people in the following terms:
The army of the confederates had hardly proceeded a few stages from Makkah when the followers of Talha and Zubair began to quarrel among themselves on the point as to who out of Talha and Zubair should become the Caliph in the event of victory. Ayesha tried to end the dispute by declaring that the issue was premature, and that at the proper time it was for the people of Madina to choose the Caliph as they had elected the previous Caliphs. Ayesha appointed a neutral person to lead the prayers. The quarrel, however, did its damage. Some of the people who belonged neither to the party of Talha, nor to that of Zubair came to feel that the war was being fought because of personal motives of Talha and Zubair. Some persons suggested that as they had taken up arms to avenge the blood of Othman it was proper that a son of Othman should be chosen as the Caliph. This suggestion was turned down by the followers of Talha and Zubair on the ground that only some veteran companion could be chosen as the Commander of the Faithful. Because of these quarrels doubts began to assail some of the people who had joined the ranks under the impression that they were going to fight in the cause of Islam. They felt uncertain as to where the truth lay. Both the sides claimed to fight for the truth and it was obvious that both of them could not be in the right at the same time. One of them was bound to be in the wrong, but it could not be said who exactly was in the wrong. On one side was the "Mother of the Faithful", and on the other side was the "Commander of the Faithful." In the circumstances the proper course for the faithful was not to support either party until things appeared in their true color. Saeed b Al Aas an ex-Governor of Kufa who had joined the army of the confederates thought it advisable to desert and return to Makkah. Some other persons also returned with him. In response to the battle cry "On to Basra to kill the murderers of Othman", Saeed said. "Why go so far. The objects of your vengeance, Talha and Zubair are riding on their camels before you; kill them and return home".
After forced marches the troops of Ayesha reached Basra and camped outside the city. The die was cast. Basra, heretofore a peaceful city had to face a storm, and become the theatre of an unfortunate civil war which was to lead to blood shed, and destroy unity amongst the Muslims.
When the army of Ayesha camped outside the city of Basra, Othman bin Hanif, the Alid Governor of Basra, sent a delegation from Basra to wait on Ayesha and ascertain from her the cause of her arrival there with an army. The delegation comprised two men, Imran bin Husain, and Abul Aswad. Ayesha received the delegation with due courtesy.
On return from Ayesha, Imran bin Husain advised Othman bin Hanif that he should not involve himself in war with Ayesha for she had talked in the language of peace, and not in that of war. Abul Aswad the other member of the delegation, who was a staunch supporter of Ali, advised Othman bin Hanif that as the Governor of Ali, he should fight against the enemies of Ali. Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, and rebelling against Ali their purpose in coming over to Basra with an army could not be based on peaceful motives.
Othman bin Hanif required the people of Basra to assemble in the mosque to consider what action should be taken against the confederates. The congregation was addressed in the first instance by Qais b Al Aqd. He was critical of the arrival of the confederates. He said that if these people had come to Basra to seek protection that was absurd for they themselves came from a place where even birds were assured of safety. He added that if they had come to seek vengeance for the blood of Othman, they should know that the people of Basra had not killed Othman. He exhorted the people of Basra to take up arms, and drive away the confederates from their city. Othman b Hanif addressed the people in the following terms:
O ye people, you have sworn allegiance to Ali in the name of God, and his hand is over your hands. Whosoever recants his allegiance is guilty before men and God. I swear by God that had there been a worthier candidate than Ali for the Caliphate, he would not have accepted the burden of the office. Had the people sworn allegiance to any one else except Ali, he would have also sworn allegiance to him. In that case Ali would have obeyed the Caliph without any reservation. Remember that Ali had no ill will against any of the companions of the Holy Prophet. Both Talha and Zubair took the oath of fealty to Ali, but their aim in taking such oath was not to obey God. Instead of seeking recompense from God they seek recompense from men. Now both of them assert that they had taken the oath under compulsion, when the sword was placed on their necks. We have to see what is the opinion of the people. Where there is majority, there lies the truth of guidance. It is an open secret that the majority have elected Ali as the Caliph, and there can be no doubt that the truth is on the side of Ali. It is therefore incumbent on you to fight against those who have rebelled against the authority of the Caliph, and thereby espoused the cause of falsehood.
Hakim b Jabala, the Deputy Governor took a more violent stand. He exhorted the people of Basra to take up arms against the people who had rebelled against the authority of the Caliph. He added that should all the people for sake him, he would fight against the rebels single handed until he met his martyrdom fighting in the cause of the truth.
Aswad bin Harith al Saadi contradicted the stand of those who had advocated war. He said that Islam was the religion of peace and all disputes between the Muslims should be resolved through peaceful means. He held out that the confederates had not come to Basra to wage war. They had come to seek the aid of the citizens of Basra in their campaign against the murderers of Othman, and in that behalf it behooved the citizens of Basra to treat them as honored guests, particularly when they were led by the Mother of the Faithful. Some other speeches were made in favor of Ayesha. That led to an uproar among the people assembled in the mosque. Some people were loud in their support for Ali, and some were loud in their support for Ayesha. The meeting in the mosque ended in a state of confusion. Those who favored Ayesha joined the camp of Ayesha. Those who favored Ali responded to the call of Othman bin Hanif, and took up arms to fight against the confederates.Some attempts were made to negotiate peace, but such attempts failed and the armies on both the sides took themselves to the battle field. Before the battle began, the representatives of each side in the usual Arab way declaimed the righteousness of their cause. After Talha and Zubair had spoken, Ayesha addressed the people of Basra. She said that she had no intention of fighting against the people of Basra, and shedding unnecessary blood. She added that her object was to seek vengeance for the blood of the innocent Othman. He was the Caliph of the entire Muslim world including Basra and as such it was an obligation on their part to help in seeking such vengeance and bringing the murderers of Othman to task. She observed that the war was no solution of the matter and her very presence there was a positive proof to the effect that she wanted a peaceful resolution of the crisis that had overtaken the Muslims just as any mother would like any dispute between her sons to be settled peacefully and amicably. Her speech was impressive and effective. It started a good deal of argument and disagreement among the ranks of the army of Basra, and some of the persons withdrew.
In spite of some defections from the ranks of the army of Basra there was no weakening of their will to give a fight to the confederates. Jariya bin Qadama, a distinguished citizen of Basra stepped forward from the ranks, and addressing Ayesha said that though the assassination of Othman was painful to the people of Basra, her discarding of the veil, and leading an army was more painful to them. He wanted her to return to Makkah or Madina, and not to meddle in politics which did not behoove her as the Mother of the Faithful. Another citizen of Basra taunted Talha and Zubair for leaving their wives and mothers at their homes and dragging the Mother of the Faithful to the battle field. Talha and Zubair were also criticized for taking the oath of allegiance to Ali and then breaking it.
By this time excitement among the warriors on both the sides reached a high pitch, and the war began with an attack on the forces of the confederates led by Hakim bin Jabala the deputy of Othman bin Hanif. Hakim under a mistaken notion of his loyalty to Ali, hurled abuses on Ayesha. When his own men objected to such conduct, he shot dead those who objected. Ayesha instructed her men to remain on the defensive hoping that the fury of the attack of the Basrites would soon be over and it would be possible to stop the war. When Hakim and his men penetrated deep into the ranks of the confederates, she ordered a counter charge, the battle continued till nightfall. There was considerable loss of lives on both the sides, but the loss in the ranks of the forces of Basra was much heavier.
After night fall when the forces of Othman bin Hanif had retired those people of Basra who had joined the ranks of the confederates advised that at midnight the confederates should occupy that part of Basra which was largely populated by those who were opposed to the Alids. The operation was successfully carried into effect and the following day, the fight had to take place in the city of Basra itself. That put the forces of Othman bin Hanif to disadvantage and many persons of these forces were killed. By the end of the day, Othman bin Hanif was faced with defeat and he sued for peace.
Negotiations for peace led to an agreement for truce. It was decided that the parties in occupation of the two parts of Basra should continue to hold their parts. As emissary was to be sent from Basra to Madina to ascertain whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily or under compulsion. If the inquiry revealed that the oath had been taken voluntarily the confederates would withdraw from Basra. If the enquiry revealed that the oath had been taken under compulsion the entire city of Basra would be handed over to the confederates. Till then the parties were to maintain cease fire.
In pursuance of the truce agreement between Othman bin Hanif and the confederates, Kaab bin Sur the Qazi of Basra was commissioned to go to Madina to ascertain whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily, or under some compulsion. Kaab bin Sur was originally a Christian. He was attracted by Islam, and became a Muslim. He was a man of great learning and piety and was very popular among the people of Basra. On arrival at the mosque, Madina he proceeded to the Prophet's mosque and addressing the congregation said that he had come from Basra to ascertain whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily or under compulsion. The men in the mosque maintained silence, but Usama bin Zaid stood up to say that Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance under compulsion. At this Sahl bin Hanif, the brother of Othman bin Hanif the Governor of Basra rushed with his men to beat Usama. Usama's father Zaid was an adopted son of the Holy Prophet and the Holy Prophet loved Usama as a grandson. During the time of Abu Bakr, Usama had led a campaign to Syria. Some Companions came to the rescue of Usama. And they too declared that Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance under compulsion. Kaab bin Sur came to the conclusion that Talha and Zubair had in fact taken the oath of allegiance under compulsion.
On return to Basra, Kaab submitted his report that Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali under compulsion. According to the truce agreement, Othman bin Hanif had to surrender the complete control of the city of Basra to the confederates. By this time Othman bin Hanif had received instructions from Ali that he was coming to Basra with a large force and that he should hold the city till his arrival. Othman bin Hanif accordingly refused to vacate the city on the ground that the report of Kaab was not correct. On the following Friday when the people of Basra had assembled in the main mosque, Talha and Zubair addressed them apprising them of the terms of the truce, the report of Kaab b Sur, and the breach of faith on the part of Othman b Hanif. The people assembled in the mosque came to be divided into two groups. One group supported Othman bin Hanif while the other group supported Talha and Zubair. Hot words were exchanged between the two groups, and that led to an armed conflict. Swords were freely used by both sides. The conflict lasted for several hours as a result of which many persons were killed and the mosque was dyed with the blood of the Muslims. To the conflict, the party of Othman bin Hanif suffered heavy loss of life.
At night fall, the pro-Ayesha group attacked the house of Othman bin Hanif. It was a dark and stormy night. The guards on duty were overpowered. The mob then broke into the house and Othman b Hanif was taken captive. The mob wanted to frill him, but under the orders of Ayesha he was imprisoned and lodged in jail. His beard was plucked and he was tortured by the mob.
The following day, the pro-Ali group took the field under the command of Hakim b Jabala. Ayesha made a proclamation to the effect that her quarrel was with the murderers of Othman only, and as such those who were not involved in the murder of Othman should withdraw from fighting. It was also declared that those who fought would be deemed to be involved in the murder of Othman. Kaab bin Sur tried to bring about peace between the two sides, but all efforts to bring about reconciliation between the contending parties failed. The battle that followed proved to be a bloody one. The pro-Ali group was outnumbered, but the men of the group fought desperately. Hakim bin Jabala fought like a hero. He raised slogans in favor of Ali, and heaped abuses on Ayesha, Talha, and Zubair. A warrior of the army of the confederates struck Hakim bin Jabala and severed one of his legs. In spite of this disability he continued fighting and sang.
Hakim bin Jabala died on the battle-field. With his death, his men lost heart and laid down arms. Many of them involved in the murder of Othman had fallen in the battle. Those who survived were executed. There were still some murderers of Othman who had not taken part in the battle. The tribes were asked to hand over such men. They were brought to Basra and executed. In this way all the people from Basra who were involved in the assassination of Othman were killed. Only one man escaped from such massacre. He was Harqus b Zubair. He belonged to the Banu Saad tribe. The tribe refused to hand over Harqus. The tribe which was heretofore pro-confederates changed their loyalties and offered allegiance to Ali. The tribe of Abul Qais whose many persons had been executed alienated from the confederates and transferred its loyalty to Ali. Over six hundred persons belonging to Basra or the neighboring tribes wore executed or killed as the "Qasas" for the blood of Othman.
The confederates now became the master of the entire city of Basra. The pro-Ali group evacuated the city, and those who remained in the city recognized the authority of the confederates. Supreme authority vested in Ayesha and Talha and Zubair acted as her Ministers. The Baitul-Mal was seized, and the men of the pro-confederate group who had suffered loss of life or property were duly compensated. Ayesha wrote a letter to Muawiyah in Syria informing him how the confederates had taken vengeance for the blood of Othman. He was advised to undertake campaigns on similar lines to take vengeance for the blood of Othman.
Ali's original plan was to undertake an expedition against Syria. The implementation of the plan had to be deferred because the people of Madina had not favorably responded to his call for arms. The crisis deepened when Talha and Zubair escaped from Madina, and at Makkah, Ayesha raised the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman. Ali had thought that Ayesha's call would be a mere storm in the tea-cup and she would not or could not go to the extent of precipitating war. When All came to know that Ayesha had assembled a force, and was planning a march to Basra, he felt that no further time could be lost and immediate action was called for to frustrate the efforts of Ayesha in gaining further strength. It was with some difficulty that Ali was able to raise a small force at Madina. By and large the people of Madina shut themselves in their houses, and remained indifferent to the call of Ali. The force that Ali was able to muster comprised mostly of the Sabites who had participated in the revolt against Othman. Some people of Madina who were personally devoted to Ali, however joined the ranks. Abu Qatada a leader of the Ansars, and a veteran warrior waited on Ali and offered his services. Umm Salma, a wife of the Holy Prophet came to see Ali and said that if other women were to accompany him she would be glad to accompany. She had a son Umar by a former husband and he joined the army of Ali. Ali appointed Tamam bin Abbas as the Governor of Madina. He sent an emissary to Makkah to recruit whatever volunteers he could from the people of Makkah. The strength of the force that Ali was able to muster in Madina did not exceed nine hundred. At the head of this force, Ali marched out of Madina. When Ali was about to depart, Abdullah bin Salam, a veteran companion of the Holy Prophet, held up the reins of the horse of Ali and said:
Aswad bin Harith al Saadi contradicted the stand of those who had advocated war. He said that Islam was the religion of peace and all disputes between the Muslims should be resolved through peaceful means. He held out that the confederates had not come to Basra to wage war. They had come to seek the aid of the citizens of Basra in their campaign against the murderers of Othman, and in that behalf it behooved the citizens of Basra to treat them as honored guests, particularly when they were led by the Mother of the Faithful. Some other speeches were made in favor of Ayesha. That led to an uproar among the people assembled in the mosque. Some people were loud in their support for Ali, and some were loud in their support for Ayesha. The meeting in the mosque ended in a state of confusion. Those who favored Ayesha joined the camp of Ayesha. Those who favored Ali responded to the call of Othman bin Hanif, and took up arms to fight against the confederates.Some attempts were made to negotiate peace, but such attempts failed and the armies on both the sides took themselves to the battle field. Before the battle began, the representatives of each side in the usual Arab way declaimed the righteousness of their cause. After Talha and Zubair had spoken, Ayesha addressed the people of Basra. She said that she had no intention of fighting against the people of Basra, and shedding unnecessary blood. She added that her object was to seek vengeance for the blood of the innocent Othman. He was the Caliph of the entire Muslim world including Basra and as such it was an obligation on their part to help in seeking such vengeance and bringing the murderers of Othman to task. She observed that the war was no solution of the matter and her very presence there was a positive proof to the effect that she wanted a peaceful resolution of the crisis that had overtaken the Muslims just as any mother would like any dispute between her sons to be settled peacefully and amicably. Her speech was impressive and effective. It started a good deal of argument and disagreement among the ranks of the army of Basra, and some of the persons withdrew.
In spite of some defections from the ranks of the army of Basra there was no weakening of their will to give a fight to the confederates. Jariya bin Qadama, a distinguished citizen of Basra stepped forward from the ranks, and addressing Ayesha said that though the assassination of Othman was painful to the people of Basra, her discarding of the veil, and leading an army was more painful to them. He wanted her to return to Makkah or Madina, and not to meddle in politics which did not behoove her as the Mother of the Faithful. Another citizen of Basra taunted Talha and Zubair for leaving their wives and mothers at their homes and dragging the Mother of the Faithful to the battle field. Talha and Zubair were also criticized for taking the oath of allegiance to Ali and then breaking it.
By this time excitement among the warriors on both the sides reached a high pitch, and the war began with an attack on the forces of the confederates led by Hakim bin Jabala the deputy of Othman bin Hanif. Hakim under a mistaken notion of his loyalty to Ali, hurled abuses on Ayesha. When his own men objected to such conduct, he shot dead those who objected. Ayesha instructed her men to remain on the defensive hoping that the fury of the attack of the Basrites would soon be over and it would be possible to stop the war. When Hakim and his men penetrated deep into the ranks of the confederates, she ordered a counter charge, the battle continued till nightfall. There was considerable loss of lives on both the sides, but the loss in the ranks of the forces of Basra was much heavier.
After night fall when the forces of Othman bin Hanif had retired those people of Basra who had joined the ranks of the confederates advised that at midnight the confederates should occupy that part of Basra which was largely populated by those who were opposed to the Alids. The operation was successfully carried into effect and the following day, the fight had to take place in the city of Basra itself. That put the forces of Othman bin Hanif to disadvantage and many persons of these forces were killed. By the end of the day, Othman bin Hanif was faced with defeat and he sued for peace.
Negotiations for peace led to an agreement for truce. It was decided that the parties in occupation of the two parts of Basra should continue to hold their parts. As emissary was to be sent from Basra to Madina to ascertain whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily or under compulsion. If the inquiry revealed that the oath had been taken voluntarily the confederates would withdraw from Basra. If the enquiry revealed that the oath had been taken under compulsion the entire city of Basra would be handed over to the confederates. Till then the parties were to maintain cease fire.
In pursuance of the truce agreement between Othman bin Hanif and the confederates, Kaab bin Sur the Qazi of Basra was commissioned to go to Madina to ascertain whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily, or under some compulsion. Kaab bin Sur was originally a Christian. He was attracted by Islam, and became a Muslim. He was a man of great learning and piety and was very popular among the people of Basra. On arrival at the mosque, Madina he proceeded to the Prophet's mosque and addressing the congregation said that he had come from Basra to ascertain whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily or under compulsion. The men in the mosque maintained silence, but Usama bin Zaid stood up to say that Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance under compulsion. At this Sahl bin Hanif, the brother of Othman bin Hanif the Governor of Basra rushed with his men to beat Usama. Usama's father Zaid was an adopted son of the Holy Prophet and the Holy Prophet loved Usama as a grandson. During the time of Abu Bakr, Usama had led a campaign to Syria. Some Companions came to the rescue of Usama. And they too declared that Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance under compulsion. Kaab bin Sur came to the conclusion that Talha and Zubair had in fact taken the oath of allegiance under compulsion.
On return to Basra, Kaab submitted his report that Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali under compulsion. According to the truce agreement, Othman bin Hanif had to surrender the complete control of the city of Basra to the confederates. By this time Othman bin Hanif had received instructions from Ali that he was coming to Basra with a large force and that he should hold the city till his arrival. Othman bin Hanif accordingly refused to vacate the city on the ground that the report of Kaab was not correct. On the following Friday when the people of Basra had assembled in the main mosque, Talha and Zubair addressed them apprising them of the terms of the truce, the report of Kaab b Sur, and the breach of faith on the part of Othman b Hanif. The people assembled in the mosque came to be divided into two groups. One group supported Othman bin Hanif while the other group supported Talha and Zubair. Hot words were exchanged between the two groups, and that led to an armed conflict. Swords were freely used by both sides. The conflict lasted for several hours as a result of which many persons were killed and the mosque was dyed with the blood of the Muslims. To the conflict, the party of Othman bin Hanif suffered heavy loss of life.
At night fall, the pro-Ayesha group attacked the house of Othman bin Hanif. It was a dark and stormy night. The guards on duty were overpowered. The mob then broke into the house and Othman b Hanif was taken captive. The mob wanted to frill him, but under the orders of Ayesha he was imprisoned and lodged in jail. His beard was plucked and he was tortured by the mob.
The following day, the pro-Ali group took the field under the command of Hakim b Jabala. Ayesha made a proclamation to the effect that her quarrel was with the murderers of Othman only, and as such those who were not involved in the murder of Othman should withdraw from fighting. It was also declared that those who fought would be deemed to be involved in the murder of Othman. Kaab bin Sur tried to bring about peace between the two sides, but all efforts to bring about reconciliation between the contending parties failed. The battle that followed proved to be a bloody one. The pro-Ali group was outnumbered, but the men of the group fought desperately. Hakim bin Jabala fought like a hero. He raised slogans in favor of Ali, and heaped abuses on Ayesha, Talha, and Zubair. A warrior of the army of the confederates struck Hakim bin Jabala and severed one of his legs. In spite of this disability he continued fighting and sang.
Hakim bin Jabala died on the battle-field. With his death, his men lost heart and laid down arms. Many of them involved in the murder of Othman had fallen in the battle. Those who survived were executed. There were still some murderers of Othman who had not taken part in the battle. The tribes were asked to hand over such men. They were brought to Basra and executed. In this way all the people from Basra who were involved in the assassination of Othman were killed. Only one man escaped from such massacre. He was Harqus b Zubair. He belonged to the Banu Saad tribe. The tribe refused to hand over Harqus. The tribe which was heretofore pro-confederates changed their loyalties and offered allegiance to Ali. The tribe of Abul Qais whose many persons had been executed alienated from the confederates and transferred its loyalty to Ali. Over six hundred persons belonging to Basra or the neighboring tribes wore executed or killed as the "Qasas" for the blood of Othman.
The confederates now became the master of the entire city of Basra. The pro-Ali group evacuated the city, and those who remained in the city recognized the authority of the confederates. Supreme authority vested in Ayesha and Talha and Zubair acted as her Ministers. The Baitul-Mal was seized, and the men of the pro-confederate group who had suffered loss of life or property were duly compensated. Ayesha wrote a letter to Muawiyah in Syria informing him how the confederates had taken vengeance for the blood of Othman. He was advised to undertake campaigns on similar lines to take vengeance for the blood of Othman.
Ali's original plan was to undertake an expedition against Syria. The implementation of the plan had to be deferred because the people of Madina had not favorably responded to his call for arms. The crisis deepened when Talha and Zubair escaped from Madina, and at Makkah, Ayesha raised the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman. Ali had thought that Ayesha's call would be a mere storm in the tea-cup and she would not or could not go to the extent of precipitating war. When All came to know that Ayesha had assembled a force, and was planning a march to Basra, he felt that no further time could be lost and immediate action was called for to frustrate the efforts of Ayesha in gaining further strength. It was with some difficulty that Ali was able to raise a small force at Madina. By and large the people of Madina shut themselves in their houses, and remained indifferent to the call of Ali. The force that Ali was able to muster comprised mostly of the Sabites who had participated in the revolt against Othman. Some people of Madina who were personally devoted to Ali, however joined the ranks. Abu Qatada a leader of the Ansars, and a veteran warrior waited on Ali and offered his services. Umm Salma, a wife of the Holy Prophet came to see Ali and said that if other women were to accompany him she would be glad to accompany. She had a son Umar by a former husband and he joined the army of Ali. Ali appointed Tamam bin Abbas as the Governor of Madina. He sent an emissary to Makkah to recruit whatever volunteers he could from the people of Makkah. The strength of the force that Ali was able to muster in Madina did not exceed nine hundred. At the head of this force, Ali marched out of Madina. When Ali was about to depart, Abdullah bin Salam, a veteran companion of the Holy Prophet, held up the reins of the horse of Ali and said:
"O Commander of the faithful, do not go out of Madina. If you once leave Madina you will not be able to return to Madina again. Madina would thereafter cease to be the capital of the Muslim world."
The Sabite followers of Ali wanted to deal roughly with the old man, but Ali warned them not to touch the person of Abdullah bin Salam for he was an eminent companion of the Holy Prophet. Ali assured Abdullah bin Salam that he would soon return to Madina. That was, however, not to be. Ali never came back to Madina, and Madina ceased to be the capital of the Muslim commonwealth.
After some forced marches, Ali reached Rabda. It was a junction from where one road led to Madina, one to Makkah, one to Kufa, and another to Basra. Here he came to know that the army of Ayesha had already reached Basra, and he had been late in intercepting the army of Ayesha half-way. Ali now felt that a battle would have to be fought at Basra. The army at the disposal of Ali was inadequate for the purpose. Imam Hasan the son of Ali advised his father not to play with fire. He said:
After some forced marches, Ali reached Rabda. It was a junction from where one road led to Madina, one to Makkah, one to Kufa, and another to Basra. Here he came to know that the army of Ayesha had already reached Basra, and he had been late in intercepting the army of Ayesha half-way. Ali now felt that a battle would have to be fought at Basra. The army at the disposal of Ali was inadequate for the purpose. Imam Hasan the son of Ali advised his father not to play with fire. He said:
"I fear that like Othman you will be assassinated. I have been advising you not to play with fire, but you have not listened to me." Ali wanted him to indicate what was his advice to which he had not listened. Thereupon Imam Hasan said: "When the house of Othman was besieged by the rebels I had advised you to go out of Madina, for the assassination of Othman while you were present in Madina was not in your interest. When Othman had been assassinated I had advised you not to accept the caliphate unless deputations came to you from various parts of the country to request you to accept the caliphate. When Talha and Zubair defected, I advised you to shut yourself in your house, and leave it to the people to decide the question of the vengeance for the blood of Othman themselves. I had advised you to keep aloof from the controversy, but you did not accept my advice."
Ali said he did not leave Madina when the house of Othman was besieged for in that ease the rebels would have chased, and he would have met the same fate as had befallen to Othman. The caliphate was offered to me by the people of Madina. They alone were competent to do so, and other towns had to conform to the decision taken by the people of Madina. He explained that when he had accepted the office of the Caliph he could not shut himself in his house and evade the responsibilities of the office.
From Rabda, Ali sent envoys to the neighboring tribes to seek volunteers. The Banu Tai were the first to rally to the support of Ali. During the time of the Holy Prophet, Ali had played an important role in espousing their cause, and converting them to Islam. The tribe had particular attachment for Ali, and they enthusiastically responded to Ali's call for volunteers. Saeed b Ubaid, the chief of the Banu Tai waited on Ali and said: "O Commander of the Faithful, there are many persons who do not speak openly what is in their heart, but such is not the case with me. I have always held you in the greatest esteem. The men of the Banu Asad allied with Banu Tai also swore allegiance to Ali. Most of the other tribes in the neighborhood chose to remain neutral and not to side with any party at that stage.
From the camp at Rabda, Ali addressed a letter to his Governor of Basra. Before this letter reached him, Othman b Hanif had made a truce with Ayesha, and deputed an emissary to Madina to inquire whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily or under some duress. When Ali came to know of this development, he addressed another letter to Othman b Hanif in the following terms: "Talha and Zubair swore allegiance to me under no compulsion". It appears that before the second letter could reach Othman bin Hanif, Basra had already been occupied by the forces of the confederates and the Governor of Ali had been overthrown.
In spite of the accession of the tribes of Banu Tai and Banu Asad, the forces at the disposal of Ali were still too inadequate for any big show down. The crisis had deepened after the occupation of Basra by Ayesha and the confederates. To dislodge the rebels from Basra, a large army was needed, and such large force could come from Kufa alone. Ali accordingly decided to win over Kufa to his cause before proceeding to Basra.
Before Ali could proceed to Basra, he had to tackle the problem of Kufa. The people of Kufa had played a leading role in the revolt against Othman. After the assassination of Othman, they offered the caliphate to Zubair, but on his refusal, they supported the caliphate of Ali. When Ali was elected as the Caliph, the people of Kufa took the oath of allegiance to him. Abu Musa Ashari was the Governor of Kufa appointed by Othman. When Ali deposed the Governors of the previous regime, and sent his nominee to assume the charge of the governorship of Kufa in place of Abu Musa Ashari, the people of Kufa refused to accept the new Governor, and wanted Abu Musa to continue in his office. Ali accepted the demand of the people of Kufa and allowed Abu Musa Ashari to continue as the Governor. Abu Musa Ashari took the oath of allegiance to Ali. The situation in Kufa was intriguing. Though the Kufans had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, they believed themselves to be strong enough to act independently. In this context although Abu Musa owed his appointment to Ali, he did not deem it necessary to follow the orders of Ali in all respects.
When Muawiyah had raised the standard of revolt in the west in Syria, and Ayesha had led her forces to Basra in the east, Ali could afford to undertake a punitive expedition against Kufa to cut the Governor to proper size. Ali accordingly decided to win over the people of Kufa and their Governor through conciliatory means. From Rabda, Ali sent a mission to Kufa comprising Muhammad bin Jafar and Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. Both of them were the sons of Asma. Asma was originally the wife of Jafar an elder brother of Ali. After the death of Jafar, Asma married Abu Bakr. After the death of Abu Bakr she married Ali. The two Muhammads were thus the step-sons of Ali.
The envoys of Ali were received by Abu Musa Ashari coldly. He behaved as if he was not an appointee of Ali, but was the ruler of an independent country. He wanted the envoys of Ali to carry the following message to their master: "The assumption of the caliphate has placed Ali in an awkward position. Therefore, we the people of Kufa have decided not to engage ourselves in the struggle. Let it be understood that we shall not take sides, until you have rid yourselves of the murderers of Othman,"
The stand taken by Abu Musa Ashari was preposterous. As the Governor owing allegiance to Ali, he was under an obligation to carry out the policies of Ali. He could not sit in judgment over the command of Ali. Ali, however, took a lenient view of the matter and on the failure of the first mission he sent another mission to Kufa headed by Abdullah bin Abbas, an eminent companion and a cousin of Ali as well as the Holy Prophet. This mission was also received coldy by Abu Musa Ashari. The mission did not succeed in making Abu Musa see reason or realize his obligation to the Caliph.
The failure of two successive missions to Kufa set Ali thinking. It transpired that the missions sent heretofore had merely met Abu Musa Ashari, and he had not allowed the members of the mission see the people. He had appropriated to himself the right to speak on behalf of the people of Kufa. Ali was advised that if Kufa was to be won, a bolder line of action should be followed. After a good deal of discussion and deliberation, it was decided that an effort should be made to contact the people of Kufa direct. Among the troops of Ali, there were some persons who belonged to Kufa or commanded influence with the people of Kufa. They were sent to Kufa to contact their friends and relatives and win them over to the side of Ali. This time the mission to Kufa was led by Imam Hasan. It was felt that as long as Abu Musa Ashari was the Governor of Kufa the chances of the success of the mission were slender. Ali accordingly authorized Imam Hasan that if the circumstances in Kafa were favorable, he could depose Abu Musa Ashari and appoint a new Governor.
The agents of Ali succeeded in winning over many people to the side of Ali. These agents brought home the point that as most of the people of Kufa had joined in the revolt against Othman, the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman was really aimed at the massacre of the people of Kufa. It was argued that in the circumstances it was in the interests of the people of Kufa that they should side with Ali and fight against those who raise the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman merely as a pretext for capturing power. The argument appealed to the people, and they decided to opt for Ali.
Imam Hasan arrived at Kufa on a Friday at the time of noon day prayers, and he proceed straight away to the main mosque. The agents of Ali had brought the supporters of Ali to the mosque in large numbers. As Imam Hasan entered the mosque, he was given a standing ovation by the people. Abu Musa Ashari who was present in the mosque welcomed Imam Hasan to Kufa. Imam Hasan took the stage, and after praising God and the Holy Prophet conveyed the message of goodwill of Ali for the people of Kufa. He exhorted the people to strengthen the hands of Ali in his fight against those who wanted to sow discord among the Muslims. Some of the people raised shouts in favor of Ayesha.
At this stage, Zaid bin Sehwan a prominent citizen of Kufa rose up to say that he had received a letter from Ayesha wherein she had advised the people of Kufa to remain in their houses and not to take part in any fight. At this Imam Hasan put the following question to the assembly: "Is it not strange that she should advise the citizens of Kufa to abstain from fighting while she is herself leading a fight against the citizens of Basra." Abu Musa Ashari took the stage, and said that in this crisis when two parties of the Muslims were at logger heads, the best course for the people of Kufa was to remain neutral. Thereafter a long dialogue followed between Imam Hasan and Abu Musa Ashari. Imam Hasan asked Abu Musa Ashari the question: "Did Talha and Zubair not take oath of allegiance to Ali?" Abu Musa said that they had taken the oath. Then Imam Hasan asked the question, "What wrong had Ali done to justify Talha and Zubair revolt against him?" Abu Musa said that he was not aware of any reason which could justify the revolt of Talha and Zubair?" Imam Hasan next asked "If some one revolts against established authority, will such authority not be authorized to take action against those who have revolted?" Abu Musa answered the question in the affirmative. "Then on what ground you do not justify the action that Ali, the duly elected Caliph, has taken against those who have rebelled against his authority?" Abu Musa said that his ground was that it would lead to bloodshed among the Muslims. "But why should the Muslims help those who have rebelled against authority, when God has enjoined the faithful to obey those in authority?" asked Imam Hasan, and to this question Abu Musa had no reply. Imam Hasan next inquired of Abu Musa whether he had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, and Abu Musa replied to this question in the affirmative. "You owe your office of the Governor to Ali" was the next question, and to this question again Abu Musa answered "Yes". "Are you not under an obligation to obey the command of the Caliph, and not to do any act which helps his enemies directly or indirectly," Imam Hasan asked, and this question was also answered in the affirmative. Imam Hasan thereafter posed the following question: "Your Caliph asks you to help him in his fight against his enemies. His enemies have asked the people of Kufa to remain confined to their houses and not to participate in the war. You also ask the people of Kufa to abstain from war. This means that by your acts you are helping the enemies of the Caliph although you have taken the oath of allegiance to him and owe your appointment to him, This is sedition." To this Abu Musa had no answer.
At this the supporters of Ali raised the cry, "Down with the Governor. He is a traitor". Some voices were raised in support of Abu Musa, and there was exchange of blows and hot words between the two sides. The fight between the parties spread outside the mosque. A party led by Ashtar took possession of the Governor's House and captured the Baitul Mall, that was the end of the governorship of Abu Musa Ashari. He escaped to Makkah and under the authority delegated to him by Ali, Imam Hasan appointed Qarda bin Kaab as the new Governor of Kufa.
With the departure of Abu Musa Ashari from Kufa, a pro-Ali government was set up in Kufa. The new Government proclaimed their full support to Ali. The new Governor addressed the people of Kufa in the mosque, and exhorted them to enroll themselves in the ranks of Ali and strengthen his hands to enable him fight for the truth. Imam Hasan also addressed the people. He said: "Ali has sent me to you with his message of goodwill for you. Of all the people in the commonwealth he has the greatest regard for you. He intends to make Kufa the capital of the Muslim Empire. This is a great honor, but Kufa deserves it. You are the people who can distinguish truth from falsehood. The way in which you have risen in the cause of Ali is a positive proof of your love for the truth. Your Caliph needs your assistance. It is both in your interest and duty incumbent on you to help him. Can you give any reason for refusing his help? Is there any one who can reasonably accuse him of having shown any covetous inclinations, or withholding or perverting justice? Can any one amongst you say that he thrust himself into the Caliphate or that he proved himself unworthy of this dignity in any way? Beware of those rebels who pretend to have taken up arms to avenge the murder of Othman. O ye people of Kufa, the avenging of the murder of Othman is merely a pretext to dethrone the Caliph Ali. Ali was elected as the Caliph unanimously by the people of Madina. Talha and Zubair who now lead the rebels took the oath of allegiance to him. Indeed they were the first to support him. Now they are the first to forswear him. Therefore O ye the people of Kufa, it is incumbent on you to come and do what is good and forbid what is evil. Islam expects you to do your duty, and your duty lies in supporting your Caliph."
The magnetic personality of Imam Hasan, and his inspiring address won the hearts of the people of Kufa, and they declared that they would stand by their Caliph through thick and thin. The people began to flock to the standard of Imam Hasan in large numbers, and enrolled themselves as volunteers. Within a week, a force ten thousand strong was raised from Kufa to support Ali.When Ali came to know that his mission in Kufa had succeeded, and a force of ten thousand men from Kufa was coming to swell his ranks, he felt very happy. He proceeded one stage from ar-Rabd to welcome the men from Kufa. When he met the men from Kufa, he welcomed them enthusiastically. They assured him that they would stand by him in thick and thin, and in peace and war. The ten thousand strong army from Kufa added materially to the strength of Ali. The force from Kufa included some veteran warriors who had distinguished themselves in the wars against Persia during the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar.
When the Bedouin tribes who had heretofore followed the policy of sitting on the fence saw that the people of Kufa had joined Ali in large numbers, they also decided to cast in their lot with Ali, and offered to serve in the ranks under him. When Ali had left Madina he had hardly nine hundred men at his disposal. The strength of the army with him had now risen to twenty thousand. This considerably strengthened his position, and he could confidently undertake the campaign to Basra in the raising of the army, there was, however, one point which could be a cause of embarrassment. Most of the Bedouins and the people of Kufa who had volunteered to join him were the men who had taken part in the rebellion against Othman. Indeed they were the people who were the most ardent supporters of Ali. At this juncture when Ali stood in great need of allies he could not afford to alienate the men who had volunteered to support his cause. As Ali pondered over this aspect of the matter he felt that the people who had rebelled against him after taking the oath of allegiance to him were responsible for this awkward state of affairs. If such men had cooperated with him after consolidating his rule he could have taken some punitive action against the persons who had participated in the rebellion against Othman. If the rebels were sincere in their demand for the vengeance of the blood of Othman, it was incumbent on them to have strengthened his hands. By rebelling against him they had frustrated the object which they intended to achieve. The truth of the matter was that the cry of vengeance for the blood of Othman was a mere pretext, their real purpose was to capture power. Ali was never keen to be elected as the Caliph, but now that he had been elected as the Caliph, he had to see that the sacred Office of the Caliph should not become a plaything for adventurers.
Another point that worried Ali was that as the caliph it was incumbent on him that he should avoid any blood-shedding among the Muslims. He accordingly resolved that though he would take a large army to Basra, he would avoid war, end the sheer strength of his army would act as a brake against any rash action on the part of his opponents. After weighing such pros and cons of the case, Ali broke the camp at ar-Rabda, and took the road to Basra at the head of a large army twenty thousand strong.
When Ali and his troops halted at Dhulkan midway between ar-Rabda and Basra, they were joined by Othman bin Hanif, the Alid Governor of Basra. The Governor had been taken captive by the rebels and lodged in the prison. Later he was released under the orders of Ayesha. Othman bin Hanif was in a sorry state when he confronted Ali, half dead from the treatment that he had received at the hands of the rebels. He said, O Commander of the Faithful, you sent me to Basra with a beard, but now I return to you disgraced having none. Ali consoled him and said that his services in the cause of Islam would be recognized, and he would be compensated for the privations that he had suffered. Ali humorously remarked that he was old when he had sent him to Basra, but he had returned to him looking younger. Othman bin Hanif joined the retinue, and accompanied Ali to Basra.
On the way to Basra at one of the halts, a "Kahin" met Ali. The "Kahin" said that he saw blood flowing profusely on all sides. Ali cursed him for his evil pronogstigation.
The tribes of Rabiah and Abdul Qais had originally joined the troops of Ayesha but later they withdrew their support from her and marched out of Basra to join the forces of Ali. Ali welcomed them and praised them for their ability to discern the truth.
As the troops of Ali moved forward, news were received that Basra had been occupied by the confederates, and that all the people of Basra who were suspected of having participated in the murder of Othman had been executed. Thereupon Ali is reported to have said: "Now that they have taken the Qasas, and killed the people whom they considered guilty of the murder of Othman, what more do they want in Basra? O God, rid me of Talha and Zubair."
On reaching Basra, the troops of Ali camped outside the city. It was a large army, and the camp was spread over several miles. The pro-Alid people of Basra who had evacuated the city on its cooperation by the confederates also joined the camp. Some other tribes in the neighborhood of Basra also joined the camp. Ali instructed his men to remain at peace. According to his instructions war was not to be resorted to, until all possibilities of peace had been exhausted.
Although Ali had led an army to Basra, he was averse to any armed conflict between the Muslims. He felt that those who had rebelled against his authority labored under some misunderstanding. It was his endeavor that such misunderstanding should be removed and unity should be restored among the Muslims. When his army Generals asked his instructions about beginning the war operations, he commanded that war was not to be resorted to until all possibilities of an equitable settlement through peaceful means had been exhausted. He ordered that even on the failure of the peace parleys, the first shot was not to be fired from his side. "Let the other side take the initiative in the war, if they are not inclined to listen to the voice of reason" he said.
In his quest for peace, Ali sent a peace mission to Ayesha. The peace mission was headed by Qa'aqa, a prominent leader from Kufa. He was a renowned warrior, and was well known for his heroic exploits in the wars against the Persians during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar. The mission was instructed by Ali not to adopt a threatening or a patronizing attitude. No attempt was to be made to over awe the other side with the superior strength of the force at the disposal of the Caliphate. Ali desired that the negotiations between the parties should be a heart to heart dialogue, and every possible effort should be made to remove the misunderstandings between the parties. Ali instructed the members of the mission that due respect should be shown to Ayesha, the Mother of the Faithful. He sent a message of goodwill and great regards to Ayesha saying that in spite of the unfortunate misunderstandings that had cropped up between them he looked to her as a mother, and expected a motherly treatment from her.
From Rabda, Ali sent envoys to the neighboring tribes to seek volunteers. The Banu Tai were the first to rally to the support of Ali. During the time of the Holy Prophet, Ali had played an important role in espousing their cause, and converting them to Islam. The tribe had particular attachment for Ali, and they enthusiastically responded to Ali's call for volunteers. Saeed b Ubaid, the chief of the Banu Tai waited on Ali and said: "O Commander of the Faithful, there are many persons who do not speak openly what is in their heart, but such is not the case with me. I have always held you in the greatest esteem. The men of the Banu Asad allied with Banu Tai also swore allegiance to Ali. Most of the other tribes in the neighborhood chose to remain neutral and not to side with any party at that stage.
From the camp at Rabda, Ali addressed a letter to his Governor of Basra. Before this letter reached him, Othman b Hanif had made a truce with Ayesha, and deputed an emissary to Madina to inquire whether Talha and Zubair had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily or under some duress. When Ali came to know of this development, he addressed another letter to Othman b Hanif in the following terms: "Talha and Zubair swore allegiance to me under no compulsion". It appears that before the second letter could reach Othman bin Hanif, Basra had already been occupied by the forces of the confederates and the Governor of Ali had been overthrown.
In spite of the accession of the tribes of Banu Tai and Banu Asad, the forces at the disposal of Ali were still too inadequate for any big show down. The crisis had deepened after the occupation of Basra by Ayesha and the confederates. To dislodge the rebels from Basra, a large army was needed, and such large force could come from Kufa alone. Ali accordingly decided to win over Kufa to his cause before proceeding to Basra.
Before Ali could proceed to Basra, he had to tackle the problem of Kufa. The people of Kufa had played a leading role in the revolt against Othman. After the assassination of Othman, they offered the caliphate to Zubair, but on his refusal, they supported the caliphate of Ali. When Ali was elected as the Caliph, the people of Kufa took the oath of allegiance to him. Abu Musa Ashari was the Governor of Kufa appointed by Othman. When Ali deposed the Governors of the previous regime, and sent his nominee to assume the charge of the governorship of Kufa in place of Abu Musa Ashari, the people of Kufa refused to accept the new Governor, and wanted Abu Musa to continue in his office. Ali accepted the demand of the people of Kufa and allowed Abu Musa Ashari to continue as the Governor. Abu Musa Ashari took the oath of allegiance to Ali. The situation in Kufa was intriguing. Though the Kufans had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, they believed themselves to be strong enough to act independently. In this context although Abu Musa owed his appointment to Ali, he did not deem it necessary to follow the orders of Ali in all respects.
When Muawiyah had raised the standard of revolt in the west in Syria, and Ayesha had led her forces to Basra in the east, Ali could afford to undertake a punitive expedition against Kufa to cut the Governor to proper size. Ali accordingly decided to win over the people of Kufa and their Governor through conciliatory means. From Rabda, Ali sent a mission to Kufa comprising Muhammad bin Jafar and Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. Both of them were the sons of Asma. Asma was originally the wife of Jafar an elder brother of Ali. After the death of Jafar, Asma married Abu Bakr. After the death of Abu Bakr she married Ali. The two Muhammads were thus the step-sons of Ali.
The envoys of Ali were received by Abu Musa Ashari coldly. He behaved as if he was not an appointee of Ali, but was the ruler of an independent country. He wanted the envoys of Ali to carry the following message to their master: "The assumption of the caliphate has placed Ali in an awkward position. Therefore, we the people of Kufa have decided not to engage ourselves in the struggle. Let it be understood that we shall not take sides, until you have rid yourselves of the murderers of Othman,"
The stand taken by Abu Musa Ashari was preposterous. As the Governor owing allegiance to Ali, he was under an obligation to carry out the policies of Ali. He could not sit in judgment over the command of Ali. Ali, however, took a lenient view of the matter and on the failure of the first mission he sent another mission to Kufa headed by Abdullah bin Abbas, an eminent companion and a cousin of Ali as well as the Holy Prophet. This mission was also received coldy by Abu Musa Ashari. The mission did not succeed in making Abu Musa see reason or realize his obligation to the Caliph.
The failure of two successive missions to Kufa set Ali thinking. It transpired that the missions sent heretofore had merely met Abu Musa Ashari, and he had not allowed the members of the mission see the people. He had appropriated to himself the right to speak on behalf of the people of Kufa. Ali was advised that if Kufa was to be won, a bolder line of action should be followed. After a good deal of discussion and deliberation, it was decided that an effort should be made to contact the people of Kufa direct. Among the troops of Ali, there were some persons who belonged to Kufa or commanded influence with the people of Kufa. They were sent to Kufa to contact their friends and relatives and win them over to the side of Ali. This time the mission to Kufa was led by Imam Hasan. It was felt that as long as Abu Musa Ashari was the Governor of Kufa the chances of the success of the mission were slender. Ali accordingly authorized Imam Hasan that if the circumstances in Kafa were favorable, he could depose Abu Musa Ashari and appoint a new Governor.
The agents of Ali succeeded in winning over many people to the side of Ali. These agents brought home the point that as most of the people of Kufa had joined in the revolt against Othman, the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman was really aimed at the massacre of the people of Kufa. It was argued that in the circumstances it was in the interests of the people of Kufa that they should side with Ali and fight against those who raise the cry for the vengeance of the blood of Othman merely as a pretext for capturing power. The argument appealed to the people, and they decided to opt for Ali.
Imam Hasan arrived at Kufa on a Friday at the time of noon day prayers, and he proceed straight away to the main mosque. The agents of Ali had brought the supporters of Ali to the mosque in large numbers. As Imam Hasan entered the mosque, he was given a standing ovation by the people. Abu Musa Ashari who was present in the mosque welcomed Imam Hasan to Kufa. Imam Hasan took the stage, and after praising God and the Holy Prophet conveyed the message of goodwill of Ali for the people of Kufa. He exhorted the people to strengthen the hands of Ali in his fight against those who wanted to sow discord among the Muslims. Some of the people raised shouts in favor of Ayesha.
At this stage, Zaid bin Sehwan a prominent citizen of Kufa rose up to say that he had received a letter from Ayesha wherein she had advised the people of Kufa to remain in their houses and not to take part in any fight. At this Imam Hasan put the following question to the assembly: "Is it not strange that she should advise the citizens of Kufa to abstain from fighting while she is herself leading a fight against the citizens of Basra." Abu Musa Ashari took the stage, and said that in this crisis when two parties of the Muslims were at logger heads, the best course for the people of Kufa was to remain neutral. Thereafter a long dialogue followed between Imam Hasan and Abu Musa Ashari. Imam Hasan asked Abu Musa Ashari the question: "Did Talha and Zubair not take oath of allegiance to Ali?" Abu Musa said that they had taken the oath. Then Imam Hasan asked the question, "What wrong had Ali done to justify Talha and Zubair revolt against him?" Abu Musa said that he was not aware of any reason which could justify the revolt of Talha and Zubair?" Imam Hasan next asked "If some one revolts against established authority, will such authority not be authorized to take action against those who have revolted?" Abu Musa answered the question in the affirmative. "Then on what ground you do not justify the action that Ali, the duly elected Caliph, has taken against those who have rebelled against his authority?" Abu Musa said that his ground was that it would lead to bloodshed among the Muslims. "But why should the Muslims help those who have rebelled against authority, when God has enjoined the faithful to obey those in authority?" asked Imam Hasan, and to this question Abu Musa had no reply. Imam Hasan next inquired of Abu Musa whether he had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, and Abu Musa replied to this question in the affirmative. "You owe your office of the Governor to Ali" was the next question, and to this question again Abu Musa answered "Yes". "Are you not under an obligation to obey the command of the Caliph, and not to do any act which helps his enemies directly or indirectly," Imam Hasan asked, and this question was also answered in the affirmative. Imam Hasan thereafter posed the following question: "Your Caliph asks you to help him in his fight against his enemies. His enemies have asked the people of Kufa to remain confined to their houses and not to participate in the war. You also ask the people of Kufa to abstain from war. This means that by your acts you are helping the enemies of the Caliph although you have taken the oath of allegiance to him and owe your appointment to him, This is sedition." To this Abu Musa had no answer.
At this the supporters of Ali raised the cry, "Down with the Governor. He is a traitor". Some voices were raised in support of Abu Musa, and there was exchange of blows and hot words between the two sides. The fight between the parties spread outside the mosque. A party led by Ashtar took possession of the Governor's House and captured the Baitul Mall, that was the end of the governorship of Abu Musa Ashari. He escaped to Makkah and under the authority delegated to him by Ali, Imam Hasan appointed Qarda bin Kaab as the new Governor of Kufa.
With the departure of Abu Musa Ashari from Kufa, a pro-Ali government was set up in Kufa. The new Government proclaimed their full support to Ali. The new Governor addressed the people of Kufa in the mosque, and exhorted them to enroll themselves in the ranks of Ali and strengthen his hands to enable him fight for the truth. Imam Hasan also addressed the people. He said: "Ali has sent me to you with his message of goodwill for you. Of all the people in the commonwealth he has the greatest regard for you. He intends to make Kufa the capital of the Muslim Empire. This is a great honor, but Kufa deserves it. You are the people who can distinguish truth from falsehood. The way in which you have risen in the cause of Ali is a positive proof of your love for the truth. Your Caliph needs your assistance. It is both in your interest and duty incumbent on you to help him. Can you give any reason for refusing his help? Is there any one who can reasonably accuse him of having shown any covetous inclinations, or withholding or perverting justice? Can any one amongst you say that he thrust himself into the Caliphate or that he proved himself unworthy of this dignity in any way? Beware of those rebels who pretend to have taken up arms to avenge the murder of Othman. O ye people of Kufa, the avenging of the murder of Othman is merely a pretext to dethrone the Caliph Ali. Ali was elected as the Caliph unanimously by the people of Madina. Talha and Zubair who now lead the rebels took the oath of allegiance to him. Indeed they were the first to support him. Now they are the first to forswear him. Therefore O ye the people of Kufa, it is incumbent on you to come and do what is good and forbid what is evil. Islam expects you to do your duty, and your duty lies in supporting your Caliph."
The magnetic personality of Imam Hasan, and his inspiring address won the hearts of the people of Kufa, and they declared that they would stand by their Caliph through thick and thin. The people began to flock to the standard of Imam Hasan in large numbers, and enrolled themselves as volunteers. Within a week, a force ten thousand strong was raised from Kufa to support Ali.When Ali came to know that his mission in Kufa had succeeded, and a force of ten thousand men from Kufa was coming to swell his ranks, he felt very happy. He proceeded one stage from ar-Rabd to welcome the men from Kufa. When he met the men from Kufa, he welcomed them enthusiastically. They assured him that they would stand by him in thick and thin, and in peace and war. The ten thousand strong army from Kufa added materially to the strength of Ali. The force from Kufa included some veteran warriors who had distinguished themselves in the wars against Persia during the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar.
When the Bedouin tribes who had heretofore followed the policy of sitting on the fence saw that the people of Kufa had joined Ali in large numbers, they also decided to cast in their lot with Ali, and offered to serve in the ranks under him. When Ali had left Madina he had hardly nine hundred men at his disposal. The strength of the army with him had now risen to twenty thousand. This considerably strengthened his position, and he could confidently undertake the campaign to Basra in the raising of the army, there was, however, one point which could be a cause of embarrassment. Most of the Bedouins and the people of Kufa who had volunteered to join him were the men who had taken part in the rebellion against Othman. Indeed they were the people who were the most ardent supporters of Ali. At this juncture when Ali stood in great need of allies he could not afford to alienate the men who had volunteered to support his cause. As Ali pondered over this aspect of the matter he felt that the people who had rebelled against him after taking the oath of allegiance to him were responsible for this awkward state of affairs. If such men had cooperated with him after consolidating his rule he could have taken some punitive action against the persons who had participated in the rebellion against Othman. If the rebels were sincere in their demand for the vengeance of the blood of Othman, it was incumbent on them to have strengthened his hands. By rebelling against him they had frustrated the object which they intended to achieve. The truth of the matter was that the cry of vengeance for the blood of Othman was a mere pretext, their real purpose was to capture power. Ali was never keen to be elected as the Caliph, but now that he had been elected as the Caliph, he had to see that the sacred Office of the Caliph should not become a plaything for adventurers.
Another point that worried Ali was that as the caliph it was incumbent on him that he should avoid any blood-shedding among the Muslims. He accordingly resolved that though he would take a large army to Basra, he would avoid war, end the sheer strength of his army would act as a brake against any rash action on the part of his opponents. After weighing such pros and cons of the case, Ali broke the camp at ar-Rabda, and took the road to Basra at the head of a large army twenty thousand strong.
When Ali and his troops halted at Dhulkan midway between ar-Rabda and Basra, they were joined by Othman bin Hanif, the Alid Governor of Basra. The Governor had been taken captive by the rebels and lodged in the prison. Later he was released under the orders of Ayesha. Othman bin Hanif was in a sorry state when he confronted Ali, half dead from the treatment that he had received at the hands of the rebels. He said, O Commander of the Faithful, you sent me to Basra with a beard, but now I return to you disgraced having none. Ali consoled him and said that his services in the cause of Islam would be recognized, and he would be compensated for the privations that he had suffered. Ali humorously remarked that he was old when he had sent him to Basra, but he had returned to him looking younger. Othman bin Hanif joined the retinue, and accompanied Ali to Basra.
On the way to Basra at one of the halts, a "Kahin" met Ali. The "Kahin" said that he saw blood flowing profusely on all sides. Ali cursed him for his evil pronogstigation.
The tribes of Rabiah and Abdul Qais had originally joined the troops of Ayesha but later they withdrew their support from her and marched out of Basra to join the forces of Ali. Ali welcomed them and praised them for their ability to discern the truth.
As the troops of Ali moved forward, news were received that Basra had been occupied by the confederates, and that all the people of Basra who were suspected of having participated in the murder of Othman had been executed. Thereupon Ali is reported to have said: "Now that they have taken the Qasas, and killed the people whom they considered guilty of the murder of Othman, what more do they want in Basra? O God, rid me of Talha and Zubair."
On reaching Basra, the troops of Ali camped outside the city. It was a large army, and the camp was spread over several miles. The pro-Alid people of Basra who had evacuated the city on its cooperation by the confederates also joined the camp. Some other tribes in the neighborhood of Basra also joined the camp. Ali instructed his men to remain at peace. According to his instructions war was not to be resorted to, until all possibilities of peace had been exhausted.
Although Ali had led an army to Basra, he was averse to any armed conflict between the Muslims. He felt that those who had rebelled against his authority labored under some misunderstanding. It was his endeavor that such misunderstanding should be removed and unity should be restored among the Muslims. When his army Generals asked his instructions about beginning the war operations, he commanded that war was not to be resorted to until all possibilities of an equitable settlement through peaceful means had been exhausted. He ordered that even on the failure of the peace parleys, the first shot was not to be fired from his side. "Let the other side take the initiative in the war, if they are not inclined to listen to the voice of reason" he said.
In his quest for peace, Ali sent a peace mission to Ayesha. The peace mission was headed by Qa'aqa, a prominent leader from Kufa. He was a renowned warrior, and was well known for his heroic exploits in the wars against the Persians during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar. The mission was instructed by Ali not to adopt a threatening or a patronizing attitude. No attempt was to be made to over awe the other side with the superior strength of the force at the disposal of the Caliphate. Ali desired that the negotiations between the parties should be a heart to heart dialogue, and every possible effort should be made to remove the misunderstandings between the parties. Ali instructed the members of the mission that due respect should be shown to Ayesha, the Mother of the Faithful. He sent a message of goodwill and great regards to Ayesha saying that in spite of the unfortunate misunderstandings that had cropped up between them he looked to her as a mother, and expected a motherly treatment from her.
Battle of the Camel and aftermath
The mission was received by Ayesha, Talha and Zubair with due courtesy. The message of Ali was duly delivered, and Ayesha said that she would be glad if the misunderstandings were removed and unity among the Muslims was restored. Qa'aqa inquired of Ayesha as to what were the objects before her which had prompted her to take to the field. She said that the objects before her were to seek vengeance for the blood of Othman, and to promote the cause of Islam.
With regard to the issue about the vengeance for the blood of Othman, Qa'aqa posed the question, "Mother, tell me, keeping God in view, whether you accuse Ali for the murder of Othman as a criminal or as an accomplice?" Ayesha said that she did not accuse Ali for involvement in the assassination of Othman; her grievance was that as Caliph, Ali had not taken any action to apprehend the murderers of Othman. Qa'aqa then asked whether such murder was the act of one man, or was it the act of a mob. Ayesha said that obviously it was the act of a mob. Qa'aqa next asked the question, "Have things settled down after the murder of Othman". Ayesha said that the things were still very much in a state of disarray. Qa'aqa thereupon said, "If things are still unsettled, how could Ali take action against the people who were still in control of the situation, and from whom another coup could be expected?" To this question, Ayesha, Talha or Zubair had no satisfactory answer.
Qa'aqa then posed another question, "Do you know that by rebelling against the authority of Ali you have done great harm to the cause for the vengeance of the blood of Othman?" "How was that?" asked Ayesha. Qa'aqa said, "By rebelling against the authority of Ali, you have forced Ali to deal with you instead of dealing with the murderers of Othman. In this crisis, Ali had naturally to seek allies, and when you have forsaken Ali those who had rebelled against Othman have come to the aid of Ali in large numbers, because they feel that the troubles of Ali are because of them. Things have thus moved in a vicious circle, and by rebelling against Ali you have thrown him in the lap of the persons from whom you seek vengeance. By your action you have strengthened the murderers of Othman, and weakened the Muslims." That set Ayesha thinking, and she could not know how the argument advanced by Qa'aqa could be met.
Qa'aqa then took up the question of promoting the cause of Islam. He pointed out that when the Muslims were united under Abu Bakr and Umar they made large conquests both in the east and the west. In the early years of the caliphate of Othman the process of conquests continued. When the Muslims rebelled against the authority of Othman, and came to be divided among themselves the process of conquest came to a grinding halt. He observed that the enemies of Islam were on the borders of the Muslim State ready to take advantage of any division in the ranks of the Muslims. Qa'aqa posed the question, "How can you promote the cause of Islam, if you seek to divide the Muslims for one cause or the other?" Addressing the confederates he asked, "Did you promote the cause of Islam when you killed six hundred men of Basra, and the mosque was dyed with blood? Did you thereby avenge the murder of Othman when such persons were not even remotely connected with the murder of Othman? If you killed them because rightly or wrongly you suspected them of being involved in the assassination of Othman, then is your demand for the 'Qasas' for the blood of Othman not yet satisfied?" Then he respectfully addressed Ayesha saying: "O Mother of the Faithful! Did God not enjoin you to sit quietly in your home? Then how did you promote the cause of Islam by violating these instructions?" Addressing Talha and Zubair he said "Did you not take the oath of allegiance to Ali? If you took the oath of allegiance to Ali under some compulsion, tell us the man for whom you would have voted if you were free. Is any man more qualified, and more worthy to be the Caliph of the Muslims than Ali? Verily Ali is the best man to be the Caliph of the Muslims, and by putting difficulties in his way you do not promote the cause of Islam, you do great harm to Islam."
The arguments advanced by Qa'aqa had their way. They were most effective and impressive Ayesha asked Qa'aqa, "Then, what do you suggest ?" He said, "I suggest that instead of fighting make peace. Strengthen the hands of Ali, and when law and order is fully established the Muslims acting in concert should determine how the vengeance for the blood of Othman could be taken. " Thereupon Ayesha said, "If that be the view of Ali as well, we agree to make peace on honorable terms. " Qa'aqa respectfully took leave of Ayesha, and returned to Ali to report the success of his mission.
When Ali came to know of the success of the Mission of his emissary Qa'aqa to Ayesha, Talha and Zubair, he felt very happy. The two armies encamped in the "Wadi-us-Saba" (Valley of the Lion) near the village of Khuraiba outside Basra, facing each other. It was decided that the following day when the two armies assembled in the valley, the terms of peace would be negotiated, and the proclamation of peace would be issued.
The following day as the two forces assembled, Ali posted a man in the center carrying a copy of the Holy Quran on his head. This was indicative of the desire on the part of Ali to decide the dispute peacefully in the light of the teachings of the Holy Quran.
Ali rode to the center of the valley, and called upon Talha and Zubair to step forward to meet him. When Talha and Zubair came forward he asked them why they had rebelled against his authority when they had taken the oath of allegiance to him. They said that they had taken the oath under duress and it was not binding. He asked them, after all, what did they want. They said that they wanted "Qasas" for the assassination of Othman. Ali said that this matter could be considered under conditions of peace. Talha and Zubair said that if Ali was prepared to take "Qasas" from the murderers of Othman, they were prepared to make peace and acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Ali said that he would consider their demand favorably.
Turning to Zubair, Ali said: "Have you forgotten that you are my cousin, being a son of my paternal aunt? Can you not recall that at one of our sittings with the Holy Prophet, he commended me to you? The Holy Prophet at that time predicted that I was to suffer harm at your hands, and you undertook to safeguard my interests and not to forsake me," At these words, Zabair shuddered and said "All of you have spoken the truth. I had forgotten the interview with the Holy Prophet. Now that you have reminded me of that, I will not harm your interests and would be prepared to make peace with you."
The meeting ended in an atmosphere of goodwill from both the sides. Thereafter the two armies retired to their camps, and the general impression was that peace would be made, and war would be avoided. Emissaries were exchanged between the two sides, and by the evening the general impression was that the terms of peace had been mutually agreed upon, and that the necessary peace treaty would be executed the following day.
The armies on the two sides heaved a sigh of relief on coming to know that peace was to be made the following day. At nightfall the men of the two armies retired to rest with easy hearts. The case with the regicides, the persons who had participated in the assassination of Othman was however different. In the army of Ali there were two to three thousand men of Kufa, who were involved in the revolt against Othman. When the confederates had occupied Basra they had executed all such men of Basra who were involved in the assassination of Othman as "Qasas" for the blood of Othman. The regicides of Kufa apprehended that in case peace was made between Ali and the confederates the terms of the agreement of peace were likely to be that the confederates would acknowledge the caliphate of Ali, and Ali would in turn order the execution of the regicides of Kufa like the execution of the regicides belonging to Basra. The leaders of the regicides of Kufa met in conference secretly to decide what course of action they should take to save their skins. It was proposed that Ali, Talha and Zubair should be killed. This proposal was turned down on the ground that such action on their part was likely to reunite the confederates and the followers of Ali, and they would together fight not only for the "Qasas" of Othman, but for the "Qasas" of Ali, Talha and Zubair as well. Many other proposals were considered. It was ultimately decided that they should take steps to insure that the two sides were locked in battle before the peace agreement was executed. In pursuance of this plan before the daybreak the regicides attacked the army of the confederates. When this attack came to the notice of Talha and Zubair they ordered their forces to meet the attack. They said that they knew before hand that Ali did not really mean to execute an agreement of peace. When the army of the confederates made a counter attack the regicides made Ali believe that the confederates had made a surprise attack. Ali asked his forces to take up arms and beat back the attack. Ali said that he already knew that Talha and Zubair were not serious in their peace proposals.
Before it was day break the two armies had taken the field and engaged in a life and death struggle. The regicides fought most desperately, and their attacks were resisted by the confederates. The battle accordingly took a sanguinary turn. It was a deplorable engagement, when the Muslims cut the throats of Muslims. It appeared that the injunctions of Islam had been forgotten, and the people reverted to the pre-Islamic practice of settling their disputes through the arbitration of the sword. According to chronicles when the opposing sides came together breast to breast with a furious shock the noise that was produced was like the sound of thunder. The forces of the two sides fought with the ferocity of lions and men fell on the battlefield from both the sides like the fall of autumn leaves. Talha fought bravely, and he killed many warriors of the army of Ali. He was however mortally wounded by the arrows that hit him. He was carried in an unconscious state to a house in Basra where he soon expired. By noon the tide of the battle began to turn against the confederates at this stage. Zubair is also reported to have escaped from the battlefield, and taken the road to Makkah. When Ayesha came to know of the state of the battle, she came to the battle seated in a litter on a camel. She exhorted the people to stop fighting. She posted Kasb bin Sur the Qazi of Basra in the center of the battlefield with a copy of the Holy Quran on his head. He exhorted the men of the army of Ali to stop fighting in the name of God. Some men of the army of Ali were inclined to listen to the call of Kaab bin Sur well known for his piety and learning. The regicides who were in the forefront of the fight cried "He is the man who reported that Talha and Zubair had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily. Kill him." The regicides rained arrows on Kaab bin Sur, and he fell dead. The confederates shot arrows in return killing some of the regicides. The frenzy of the combatants appeared to know no bounds the appalling carnage continued unabated, and the dead and the dying lay pilled in heaps. Ayesha seated in a litter on a camel became the main target for attack by the forces of Ali. The followers of Ayesha flocked round her camel to protect her. A devoted follower held the reins of the camel, and as any one from the army of Ali advanced to attack the camel, the man holding the reins of the camel cut him with his sword. In such duels many persons fell on both the sides. Over two dozen persons of the army of the confederates lost their heads while holding the bridle of the camel of Ayesha. The casualties in the case of the warriors of the army of Ali who dashed against the camel were much heavier. Ali felt that as long as the camel of Ayesha stood, the battle would continue. In order to end the battle, Ali directed his men to slip behind the camel and cut off its legs. Some warriors of the forces of Ali managed to slip behind the camel and cut off its legs. As the beast fell on the ground dead, it gave such a shriek that made the men shiver in their shoes. Ayesha escaped with her life although the litter in which she had been sitting was pierced with arrows. Ayesha was lifted out of the litter, and borne to a house is Basra. With the fall of Ayesha's camel, the battle ended in the victory of Ali, and the defeat of the confederates. As in this battle, the camel of Ayesha became the main target of attack. The battle came to be known as the Battle of the Camel also known as the Battle of Jamal that took place at Basra, Iraq in 656.
The loss on both the sides was considerable. Over ten thousand persons were killed in the battle. Among the dead on both the sides, there were many prominent companions of the Holy Prophet who had fought in the wars under the Holy Prophet, and the rightly guided Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Othman.
Talha the confederate leader died because of the wounds received in the battle; Zubair escaped from the battlefield and he took the road to Makkah. He had proceeded for some distance from Basra when he came across a detachment led by the Banu Qais chief Ahnaf bin Qais. Here Zubair halted to offer prayers. When Zubair prostrated himself in prayers, one of the men of Ahnaf cut off the head of Zubair with the blow of his sword. Ahnaf brought the head of Zubair to Ali hoping to be awarded for killing his enemy. At they sight of the gory head of his cousin, Ali burst into sobs and turning to Ahnaf said, "You have done a ghastly deed, and verily your lot is hell fire, Ahnaf was surprised at the remarks of Ali. Addressing Ali he said, "You are an evil judge of men. If some one delivers you from your enemies you pronounce the penalty of hell fire on him. " Bitterly resenting what he felt to be a great injustice, Ahnaf drew his sword, and plunged it into his own breast.
When after the battle, Ali inspected the battlefield, he found it piled up with dead bodies and littered with severed limbs. The plain outside Basra was virtually soaked with blood. Among the dead on both the sides there were many faces familiar to Ali, and he was much grieved over their death. These included some eminent companions. Ali felt that if as a result of the battle, men of such eminence were to die, he would not have resorted to war. It was a deplorable sight that Muslims had cut the throats of Muslims, and at this tragedy no body could grieve more than Ali. As long as the battle waged, there was enmity between the two sides. After the battle there was no enmity between the dead. Ali arranged for the funeral prayers, and the burial of the dead from both the sides. Many vultures invaded the battlefield, and carried away the limbs. A vulture carried a limb to Madina, and it was found to be a severed hand containing a ring bearing the name of Abdur Rahman bin Atab, an eminent companion. Ali did not celebrate the victory as an occasion of joy. He ordered the observance of mourning for three days in the memory of the dead. These three days were spent in the burial of the dead.
Some of the followers of Ali demanded that, having been defeated, the survivors should be distributed as slaves among the soldiers of the victorious army. Ali turned down the demand saying that as the Caliph of the Muslims he could not allow the Muslims to be enslaved by Muslims in a country which was "Dar-ul Islam". The soldiers of the army of Ali desired that if they were not to be allowed to enslave the people of Basra, they should be allowed to plunder their property. Ali turned down this demand as well with great force. He held that whatever arms and equipment had been brought to the battlefield on the occasion of the battle could be treated as 'Ghanima' (war booty) and captured, but whatever lay in the homes of the people belonged to them, and he could not permit his men to deprive the people of Basra of their rightful belongings. Whatever booty was collected from the battlefield was distributed among the soldiers according to the Islamic law, and they were asked to abstain from seizing any property of the people of Basra by force.
With regard to the issue about the vengeance for the blood of Othman, Qa'aqa posed the question, "Mother, tell me, keeping God in view, whether you accuse Ali for the murder of Othman as a criminal or as an accomplice?" Ayesha said that she did not accuse Ali for involvement in the assassination of Othman; her grievance was that as Caliph, Ali had not taken any action to apprehend the murderers of Othman. Qa'aqa then asked whether such murder was the act of one man, or was it the act of a mob. Ayesha said that obviously it was the act of a mob. Qa'aqa next asked the question, "Have things settled down after the murder of Othman". Ayesha said that the things were still very much in a state of disarray. Qa'aqa thereupon said, "If things are still unsettled, how could Ali take action against the people who were still in control of the situation, and from whom another coup could be expected?" To this question, Ayesha, Talha or Zubair had no satisfactory answer.
Qa'aqa then posed another question, "Do you know that by rebelling against the authority of Ali you have done great harm to the cause for the vengeance of the blood of Othman?" "How was that?" asked Ayesha. Qa'aqa said, "By rebelling against the authority of Ali, you have forced Ali to deal with you instead of dealing with the murderers of Othman. In this crisis, Ali had naturally to seek allies, and when you have forsaken Ali those who had rebelled against Othman have come to the aid of Ali in large numbers, because they feel that the troubles of Ali are because of them. Things have thus moved in a vicious circle, and by rebelling against Ali you have thrown him in the lap of the persons from whom you seek vengeance. By your action you have strengthened the murderers of Othman, and weakened the Muslims." That set Ayesha thinking, and she could not know how the argument advanced by Qa'aqa could be met.
Qa'aqa then took up the question of promoting the cause of Islam. He pointed out that when the Muslims were united under Abu Bakr and Umar they made large conquests both in the east and the west. In the early years of the caliphate of Othman the process of conquests continued. When the Muslims rebelled against the authority of Othman, and came to be divided among themselves the process of conquest came to a grinding halt. He observed that the enemies of Islam were on the borders of the Muslim State ready to take advantage of any division in the ranks of the Muslims. Qa'aqa posed the question, "How can you promote the cause of Islam, if you seek to divide the Muslims for one cause or the other?" Addressing the confederates he asked, "Did you promote the cause of Islam when you killed six hundred men of Basra, and the mosque was dyed with blood? Did you thereby avenge the murder of Othman when such persons were not even remotely connected with the murder of Othman? If you killed them because rightly or wrongly you suspected them of being involved in the assassination of Othman, then is your demand for the 'Qasas' for the blood of Othman not yet satisfied?" Then he respectfully addressed Ayesha saying: "O Mother of the Faithful! Did God not enjoin you to sit quietly in your home? Then how did you promote the cause of Islam by violating these instructions?" Addressing Talha and Zubair he said "Did you not take the oath of allegiance to Ali? If you took the oath of allegiance to Ali under some compulsion, tell us the man for whom you would have voted if you were free. Is any man more qualified, and more worthy to be the Caliph of the Muslims than Ali? Verily Ali is the best man to be the Caliph of the Muslims, and by putting difficulties in his way you do not promote the cause of Islam, you do great harm to Islam."
The arguments advanced by Qa'aqa had their way. They were most effective and impressive Ayesha asked Qa'aqa, "Then, what do you suggest ?" He said, "I suggest that instead of fighting make peace. Strengthen the hands of Ali, and when law and order is fully established the Muslims acting in concert should determine how the vengeance for the blood of Othman could be taken. " Thereupon Ayesha said, "If that be the view of Ali as well, we agree to make peace on honorable terms. " Qa'aqa respectfully took leave of Ayesha, and returned to Ali to report the success of his mission.
When Ali came to know of the success of the Mission of his emissary Qa'aqa to Ayesha, Talha and Zubair, he felt very happy. The two armies encamped in the "Wadi-us-Saba" (Valley of the Lion) near the village of Khuraiba outside Basra, facing each other. It was decided that the following day when the two armies assembled in the valley, the terms of peace would be negotiated, and the proclamation of peace would be issued.
The following day as the two forces assembled, Ali posted a man in the center carrying a copy of the Holy Quran on his head. This was indicative of the desire on the part of Ali to decide the dispute peacefully in the light of the teachings of the Holy Quran.
Ali rode to the center of the valley, and called upon Talha and Zubair to step forward to meet him. When Talha and Zubair came forward he asked them why they had rebelled against his authority when they had taken the oath of allegiance to him. They said that they had taken the oath under duress and it was not binding. He asked them, after all, what did they want. They said that they wanted "Qasas" for the assassination of Othman. Ali said that this matter could be considered under conditions of peace. Talha and Zubair said that if Ali was prepared to take "Qasas" from the murderers of Othman, they were prepared to make peace and acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Ali said that he would consider their demand favorably.
Turning to Zubair, Ali said: "Have you forgotten that you are my cousin, being a son of my paternal aunt? Can you not recall that at one of our sittings with the Holy Prophet, he commended me to you? The Holy Prophet at that time predicted that I was to suffer harm at your hands, and you undertook to safeguard my interests and not to forsake me," At these words, Zabair shuddered and said "All of you have spoken the truth. I had forgotten the interview with the Holy Prophet. Now that you have reminded me of that, I will not harm your interests and would be prepared to make peace with you."
The meeting ended in an atmosphere of goodwill from both the sides. Thereafter the two armies retired to their camps, and the general impression was that peace would be made, and war would be avoided. Emissaries were exchanged between the two sides, and by the evening the general impression was that the terms of peace had been mutually agreed upon, and that the necessary peace treaty would be executed the following day.
The armies on the two sides heaved a sigh of relief on coming to know that peace was to be made the following day. At nightfall the men of the two armies retired to rest with easy hearts. The case with the regicides, the persons who had participated in the assassination of Othman was however different. In the army of Ali there were two to three thousand men of Kufa, who were involved in the revolt against Othman. When the confederates had occupied Basra they had executed all such men of Basra who were involved in the assassination of Othman as "Qasas" for the blood of Othman. The regicides of Kufa apprehended that in case peace was made between Ali and the confederates the terms of the agreement of peace were likely to be that the confederates would acknowledge the caliphate of Ali, and Ali would in turn order the execution of the regicides of Kufa like the execution of the regicides belonging to Basra. The leaders of the regicides of Kufa met in conference secretly to decide what course of action they should take to save their skins. It was proposed that Ali, Talha and Zubair should be killed. This proposal was turned down on the ground that such action on their part was likely to reunite the confederates and the followers of Ali, and they would together fight not only for the "Qasas" of Othman, but for the "Qasas" of Ali, Talha and Zubair as well. Many other proposals were considered. It was ultimately decided that they should take steps to insure that the two sides were locked in battle before the peace agreement was executed. In pursuance of this plan before the daybreak the regicides attacked the army of the confederates. When this attack came to the notice of Talha and Zubair they ordered their forces to meet the attack. They said that they knew before hand that Ali did not really mean to execute an agreement of peace. When the army of the confederates made a counter attack the regicides made Ali believe that the confederates had made a surprise attack. Ali asked his forces to take up arms and beat back the attack. Ali said that he already knew that Talha and Zubair were not serious in their peace proposals.
Before it was day break the two armies had taken the field and engaged in a life and death struggle. The regicides fought most desperately, and their attacks were resisted by the confederates. The battle accordingly took a sanguinary turn. It was a deplorable engagement, when the Muslims cut the throats of Muslims. It appeared that the injunctions of Islam had been forgotten, and the people reverted to the pre-Islamic practice of settling their disputes through the arbitration of the sword. According to chronicles when the opposing sides came together breast to breast with a furious shock the noise that was produced was like the sound of thunder. The forces of the two sides fought with the ferocity of lions and men fell on the battlefield from both the sides like the fall of autumn leaves. Talha fought bravely, and he killed many warriors of the army of Ali. He was however mortally wounded by the arrows that hit him. He was carried in an unconscious state to a house in Basra where he soon expired. By noon the tide of the battle began to turn against the confederates at this stage. Zubair is also reported to have escaped from the battlefield, and taken the road to Makkah. When Ayesha came to know of the state of the battle, she came to the battle seated in a litter on a camel. She exhorted the people to stop fighting. She posted Kasb bin Sur the Qazi of Basra in the center of the battlefield with a copy of the Holy Quran on his head. He exhorted the men of the army of Ali to stop fighting in the name of God. Some men of the army of Ali were inclined to listen to the call of Kaab bin Sur well known for his piety and learning. The regicides who were in the forefront of the fight cried "He is the man who reported that Talha and Zubair had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily. Kill him." The regicides rained arrows on Kaab bin Sur, and he fell dead. The confederates shot arrows in return killing some of the regicides. The frenzy of the combatants appeared to know no bounds the appalling carnage continued unabated, and the dead and the dying lay pilled in heaps. Ayesha seated in a litter on a camel became the main target for attack by the forces of Ali. The followers of Ayesha flocked round her camel to protect her. A devoted follower held the reins of the camel, and as any one from the army of Ali advanced to attack the camel, the man holding the reins of the camel cut him with his sword. In such duels many persons fell on both the sides. Over two dozen persons of the army of the confederates lost their heads while holding the bridle of the camel of Ayesha. The casualties in the case of the warriors of the army of Ali who dashed against the camel were much heavier. Ali felt that as long as the camel of Ayesha stood, the battle would continue. In order to end the battle, Ali directed his men to slip behind the camel and cut off its legs. Some warriors of the forces of Ali managed to slip behind the camel and cut off its legs. As the beast fell on the ground dead, it gave such a shriek that made the men shiver in their shoes. Ayesha escaped with her life although the litter in which she had been sitting was pierced with arrows. Ayesha was lifted out of the litter, and borne to a house is Basra. With the fall of Ayesha's camel, the battle ended in the victory of Ali, and the defeat of the confederates. As in this battle, the camel of Ayesha became the main target of attack. The battle came to be known as the Battle of the Camel also known as the Battle of Jamal that took place at Basra, Iraq in 656.
The loss on both the sides was considerable. Over ten thousand persons were killed in the battle. Among the dead on both the sides, there were many prominent companions of the Holy Prophet who had fought in the wars under the Holy Prophet, and the rightly guided Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Othman.
Talha the confederate leader died because of the wounds received in the battle; Zubair escaped from the battlefield and he took the road to Makkah. He had proceeded for some distance from Basra when he came across a detachment led by the Banu Qais chief Ahnaf bin Qais. Here Zubair halted to offer prayers. When Zubair prostrated himself in prayers, one of the men of Ahnaf cut off the head of Zubair with the blow of his sword. Ahnaf brought the head of Zubair to Ali hoping to be awarded for killing his enemy. At they sight of the gory head of his cousin, Ali burst into sobs and turning to Ahnaf said, "You have done a ghastly deed, and verily your lot is hell fire, Ahnaf was surprised at the remarks of Ali. Addressing Ali he said, "You are an evil judge of men. If some one delivers you from your enemies you pronounce the penalty of hell fire on him. " Bitterly resenting what he felt to be a great injustice, Ahnaf drew his sword, and plunged it into his own breast.
When after the battle, Ali inspected the battlefield, he found it piled up with dead bodies and littered with severed limbs. The plain outside Basra was virtually soaked with blood. Among the dead on both the sides there were many faces familiar to Ali, and he was much grieved over their death. These included some eminent companions. Ali felt that if as a result of the battle, men of such eminence were to die, he would not have resorted to war. It was a deplorable sight that Muslims had cut the throats of Muslims, and at this tragedy no body could grieve more than Ali. As long as the battle waged, there was enmity between the two sides. After the battle there was no enmity between the dead. Ali arranged for the funeral prayers, and the burial of the dead from both the sides. Many vultures invaded the battlefield, and carried away the limbs. A vulture carried a limb to Madina, and it was found to be a severed hand containing a ring bearing the name of Abdur Rahman bin Atab, an eminent companion. Ali did not celebrate the victory as an occasion of joy. He ordered the observance of mourning for three days in the memory of the dead. These three days were spent in the burial of the dead.
Some of the followers of Ali demanded that, having been defeated, the survivors should be distributed as slaves among the soldiers of the victorious army. Ali turned down the demand saying that as the Caliph of the Muslims he could not allow the Muslims to be enslaved by Muslims in a country which was "Dar-ul Islam". The soldiers of the army of Ali desired that if they were not to be allowed to enslave the people of Basra, they should be allowed to plunder their property. Ali turned down this demand as well with great force. He held that whatever arms and equipment had been brought to the battlefield on the occasion of the battle could be treated as 'Ghanima' (war booty) and captured, but whatever lay in the homes of the people belonged to them, and he could not permit his men to deprive the people of Basra of their rightful belongings. Whatever booty was collected from the battlefield was distributed among the soldiers according to the Islamic law, and they were asked to abstain from seizing any property of the people of Basra by force.
Ali took control of Basra
After the three days of mourning were over, Ali entered the city of Basra and occupied it. He declared amnesty for the people of Basra, and asked them to assemble in the principal mosque of the city. When all the people had assembled, Ali addressed them. He said that his heart bled at the tragedy that had overtaken the people of Basra, for this they were themselves to blame. They had taken the oath of allegiance to him, but later they were misguided to repudiate such oath without cause. He observed that particular sanctity was attached to such oath, and could not be repudiated. He narrated at length the circumstances under which Othman had been killed, and how he had been elected as the Caliph. He added that Talha and Zubair were the first to offer allegiance to him, and they were the first to repudiate it. Thereafter be explained at length how the demand for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext for gaining some ulterior end. As regards Ayesha he said he had the greatest respect and regard for her. There were some minor points of difference between him and her but there was hardly any justification for making such petty differences the ground for an armed conflict. It was nor worthy of a lady of her rank and status to take to arms when according to the injunctions of Islam, ladies were required to sit in their homes, and the Holy Prophet himself had warned his wives in that respect. He added that those who had led the revolt labor under some misunderstanding, and they were misguided in taking to arms. Because of such misguidance, the Muslim Ummah had suffered, and at this suffering and disaster none was more grieved than he. He said, at this moment Basra lies bleeding. My heart bleeds at the tragedy that has befallen your city." He observed that he had granted amnesty to the people of Basra, and was prepared to forgive and forget the past, provided the people of Basra assured him of their loyalty. The speech of Ali had its effect. The spokesmen of the people of Basra regretted all that had happened, and assured Ali of their loyalty. Thereafter all the people of Basra offered allegiance to Ali. 'Fatehah' was offered for the souls of the dead from both the sides. Someone asked him whether he regarded the people who had opposed him and had died, as martyrs. He said that he regarded all the Muslims to whatever side they belonged and had died as martyrs, for rightly or wrongly they were of the conviction that they were fighting for cause. Ali led the prayers, and after the prayers, mercy of ALLAH was craved for keeping the Muslims united. Ali made the necessary arrangements for the administration of Basra. He took hold of the Baitul Mal, and compensated the people who had lost their dear ones. He made arrangements for the treatment of the wounded. It was noticed that some people of Basra who were in the forefront in opposition to Ali had escaped to seek the protection of tribes in the desert. Ali issued a proclamation that they were free to come to their homes in Basra and no action would be taken for their sins of omission or commission in the past.
The strain of the battle, the humiliation of her defeat, the failure of her mission, and the death of her dear ones were too much for Ayesha to bear. Although a brave woman, she took to weeping day and night and fell sick. Ali visited her frequently and tried to calm her feelings. He made arrangements that she was properly looked after and was provided all facilities. Ashtar the leader of the regicides purchased the most valuable camel in Basra and sent it to Ayesha in lieu of the camel that had been killed in the battle. Ayesha refused to accept the gift, and cursed Ashtar as the evil genius who was responsible for the troubles of the Muslim Ummah. When Ayesha recovered from her illness she expressed the desire to be sent to Madina. Ali made elaborate arrangements for her journey. A group of women from Basra accompanied her to Madina. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, a step-brother of Ayesha, was commissioned by Ali to escort her to Madina. Ali himself traveled with her caravan for one stage beyond Basra, and there saw her off, requesting her to forgive and forget, for no one could say whether they were destined to meet again or not. Ayesha reciprocated the goodwill of Ali and the two parted as friends. Back in Madina, Ayesha led a retired life and did not thereafter take part in politics. She contented herself with narrating the traditions of the Holy Prophet and in this field of scholarship, she came to be recognized as an authority.
Ali won the Battle of the Camel. As a result of this victory, Ali's caliphate came to be acknowledged by the entire Muslim world except Syria. From the victory of Basra the victory of Damascus could have been one step but that was not to be. Basra could not become a stepping stone to further conquests. In the long run, Ali's victory over Basra proved to be rave elusive than real. The carnage in Basra had been heavy. Almost every family to whichever side they belonged lost one or more dear ones. Though the people took the oath of allegiance to Ali but they did not feel happy. General discontentment continued to smolder in the hearts of the people. In normal circumstances, Ali's victory of Basra should have strengthened his position, and overawed those who were still opposed to him. Things however did not turn that way. If peace could have been made at Basra, and Talha and Zubair had acknowledged the caliphate of Ali, the position of Ali would have been strengthened. The death of Talha and Zubair, as subsequent events showed worked to the advantage of Muawiyah. If they had been alive, Muawiyah was bound to contend against three rivals, Ali, Talha and Zubair. After the Battle of Basra he had to contend against Ali alone, and this was something in his favor. Heretofore Muawiyah had contented himself with cold war. He had abstained from taking to arms for he was afraid that such rebellion against established authority was likely to be looked by the Muslims with disfavor. The Battle of Basra sanctioned the use of the sword as an arbiter in the matter of succession to the caliphate. It provided an argument to Muawiyah that if the people of Basra could fight against Ali, so could the people of Syria.
The victory of Basra instead of proving a source of strength for Ali, proved in the long run to be a source of weakness. Most of the people had joined Ali in the hope that as in other wars they would amass wealth by plundering the defeated people. When Ali forbade such plunder, that led to discontentment, and those who had participated in the battle came to feel that nothing was to be gained by fighting for Ali. That created difficulties for Ali in recruiting men to fight against Muawiyah.
The Battle of Basra was indeed precipitated by the regicides much against the wishes of Ali. The victory of Basra made the regicides more powerful. That led to very embarrassing results for Ali. In Basra, Ayesha had executed all the regicides of Basra. That provided an argument to Muawiyah and other enemies of Ali, that he was involved in the murder of Othman for he had taken no action against the regicides and was instead protecting them.
As the peace parleys at Basra before the outbreak of the battle showed, Ali did want to take action against the regicides of Kufa as Ayesha had taken action against the regicides of Basra. Subsequent developments however made things difficult for Ali. These people, rebellious by nature, became a source of great headache for Ali. When Ali appointed his cousin Abdullah bin Abbas as the Governor of Basra, these men viewed the appointment critically and said, "If every Caliph is to appoint his relatives as the Governors, why did we kill the old man Othman?" As with the passage of time the crisis deepened, those people progressively gained in power and importance, and Ali in spite of all his valor, integrity, and other notable qualities became a virtual prisoner in the hands of those "rebels". The Battle of Basra has cast a fatal shadow across the history of Islam. It was the first civil war between the Muslims, and it set the unfortunate precedent for the Muslims to fight among themselves to seek some secular end. The Battle of the Camel served as a prelude to the massacre of Karbala a generation later. The argument of Yazid was that if Ali could take to the sword to assert his right to the caliphate, so could he when most of the people had in fact taken the oath of allegiance to him. If the people of Basra were rebels, and Ali was justified in military action against them, thus he was justified in taking action against Imam Husain who had rebelled against his authority.
The strain of the battle, the humiliation of her defeat, the failure of her mission, and the death of her dear ones were too much for Ayesha to bear. Although a brave woman, she took to weeping day and night and fell sick. Ali visited her frequently and tried to calm her feelings. He made arrangements that she was properly looked after and was provided all facilities. Ashtar the leader of the regicides purchased the most valuable camel in Basra and sent it to Ayesha in lieu of the camel that had been killed in the battle. Ayesha refused to accept the gift, and cursed Ashtar as the evil genius who was responsible for the troubles of the Muslim Ummah. When Ayesha recovered from her illness she expressed the desire to be sent to Madina. Ali made elaborate arrangements for her journey. A group of women from Basra accompanied her to Madina. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, a step-brother of Ayesha, was commissioned by Ali to escort her to Madina. Ali himself traveled with her caravan for one stage beyond Basra, and there saw her off, requesting her to forgive and forget, for no one could say whether they were destined to meet again or not. Ayesha reciprocated the goodwill of Ali and the two parted as friends. Back in Madina, Ayesha led a retired life and did not thereafter take part in politics. She contented herself with narrating the traditions of the Holy Prophet and in this field of scholarship, she came to be recognized as an authority.
Ali won the Battle of the Camel. As a result of this victory, Ali's caliphate came to be acknowledged by the entire Muslim world except Syria. From the victory of Basra the victory of Damascus could have been one step but that was not to be. Basra could not become a stepping stone to further conquests. In the long run, Ali's victory over Basra proved to be rave elusive than real. The carnage in Basra had been heavy. Almost every family to whichever side they belonged lost one or more dear ones. Though the people took the oath of allegiance to Ali but they did not feel happy. General discontentment continued to smolder in the hearts of the people. In normal circumstances, Ali's victory of Basra should have strengthened his position, and overawed those who were still opposed to him. Things however did not turn that way. If peace could have been made at Basra, and Talha and Zubair had acknowledged the caliphate of Ali, the position of Ali would have been strengthened. The death of Talha and Zubair, as subsequent events showed worked to the advantage of Muawiyah. If they had been alive, Muawiyah was bound to contend against three rivals, Ali, Talha and Zubair. After the Battle of Basra he had to contend against Ali alone, and this was something in his favor. Heretofore Muawiyah had contented himself with cold war. He had abstained from taking to arms for he was afraid that such rebellion against established authority was likely to be looked by the Muslims with disfavor. The Battle of Basra sanctioned the use of the sword as an arbiter in the matter of succession to the caliphate. It provided an argument to Muawiyah that if the people of Basra could fight against Ali, so could the people of Syria.
The victory of Basra instead of proving a source of strength for Ali, proved in the long run to be a source of weakness. Most of the people had joined Ali in the hope that as in other wars they would amass wealth by plundering the defeated people. When Ali forbade such plunder, that led to discontentment, and those who had participated in the battle came to feel that nothing was to be gained by fighting for Ali. That created difficulties for Ali in recruiting men to fight against Muawiyah.
The Battle of Basra was indeed precipitated by the regicides much against the wishes of Ali. The victory of Basra made the regicides more powerful. That led to very embarrassing results for Ali. In Basra, Ayesha had executed all the regicides of Basra. That provided an argument to Muawiyah and other enemies of Ali, that he was involved in the murder of Othman for he had taken no action against the regicides and was instead protecting them.
As the peace parleys at Basra before the outbreak of the battle showed, Ali did want to take action against the regicides of Kufa as Ayesha had taken action against the regicides of Basra. Subsequent developments however made things difficult for Ali. These people, rebellious by nature, became a source of great headache for Ali. When Ali appointed his cousin Abdullah bin Abbas as the Governor of Basra, these men viewed the appointment critically and said, "If every Caliph is to appoint his relatives as the Governors, why did we kill the old man Othman?" As with the passage of time the crisis deepened, those people progressively gained in power and importance, and Ali in spite of all his valor, integrity, and other notable qualities became a virtual prisoner in the hands of those "rebels". The Battle of Basra has cast a fatal shadow across the history of Islam. It was the first civil war between the Muslims, and it set the unfortunate precedent for the Muslims to fight among themselves to seek some secular end. The Battle of the Camel served as a prelude to the massacre of Karbala a generation later. The argument of Yazid was that if Ali could take to the sword to assert his right to the caliphate, so could he when most of the people had in fact taken the oath of allegiance to him. If the people of Basra were rebels, and Ali was justified in military action against them, thus he was justified in taking action against Imam Husain who had rebelled against his authority.
Kufa as Capital and administrative measures
From Basra, Ali did not proceed to Madina. He proceeded to Kufa instead. When Ali had sent a mission to Kufa to get volunteers for the fight against Basra, he had promised the people of Kufa that would make their city the capital of the caliphate. After his victory of Basra, Ali declared Kufa to be the capital of the Muslim Commonwealth. When Ali had left Madina for his campaign against Talha and Zubair little did he imagine that he was not destined to visit Madina again.
After winning the victory at Basra, Ali came to feel that as he had won a victory at Basra against Ayesha, Talha and Zubair, so would he be able to win a victory against Muawiyah. For a campaign against Syria, the response from the people of Madina had been poor. As the people of Madina were religiously more advanced they were averse to side with any party for an armed conflict among the Muslims. Some eminent companions in Madina had even abstained from taking the oath of allegiance to Ali, and had preferred to follow a policy of neutrality. As such Ali felt that for any confrontation with Muawiyah, Madina could not serve as a base.
When Othman had been assassinated, the rebels had violated the sanctity of the holy city of the holy Prophet. Ali was accordingly of the view that in order to preserve the sanctity of the holy city of Madina, it was expedient that the political capital should be shifted elsewhere so that the sacred city should be spared the ordeals of facing political storms.
In the campaign against Basra, Ali had succeeded in raising a large force from Kufa. Ali hoped that after the victory of Basra, the prospects of raising a still larger force from Kufa for the campaign against Syria would be brighter. Geographically Kufa was more centrally located, and a war against Syria could be carried more advantageously with the base at Kufa instead of Madina. Those considerations prompted Ali to establish his capital at Kufa.
Kufa was a new colony town founded in the late thirties of the seventh century during the caliphate of Umar. It was founded as a military cantonment consequent upon the Muslim conquest of Iraq. The town was populated by the Bedouins of Northern Arabia. These tribes originally belonged to Yemen. In the ancient period Yemen was known for its highly developed culture. The Yemenites boasted that they were the people who had taken their culture to ancient Egypt. They claimed to be the fathers of Arabian culture. Their culture was tribal in character, and though they had accepted Islam their culture at all retained many features of the pre-Islamic culture of the age of ignorance.
The city of Kufa was divided into a number of quarters, and each quarter was populated by one tribe. These people were late comers to Islam. Most of them apostatized after the death of the Holy Prophet as a result of the apostasy war. During the caliphate of Abu Bakr, they were reconverted to Islam. During the caliphate of Umar they played an important part in the conquest of Persia, Iran and Syria. Umar availed of the services of the men of Kufa in the ranks of his army, but he did not confer on them higher posts of trust and responsibility. Under Othman they came to hold high army posts. As long as the process of foreign conquests continued, all things remained quiet within the country. When the process of foreign conquests came to a grinding halt, disturbances broke out within the country in the revolt against Othman, the people of Kufa had taken the main part. When after the death of Othman, Ali became the Caliph, the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was raised, and things became difficult for Ali, he had to seek the help of the people of Kufa. Indeed the victory of Basra was mainly due to the support of Ali by the people of Kufa. The rebels of Kufa who had participated in the murder of Othman had favored the election of Zubair as the Caliph, but later they chose to support Ali, and fight against Zubair at Basra. As the people of Kufa were late comers to the fold of Islam, they had not fully imbibed the Islamic values, and they became notorious for their perfidy and treachery. The purer Arabs of Hijaz regarded the Kufans as the "Bedouin element," the rabble of the Arabian stock.
Ali reorganized the administration. He appointed Governors and administrators for various provinces and districts. He appointed Qazis for the various cities. He issued instructions requiring his officers to administer justice with a stern hand. He asked the tax collectors to be prompt in the collection of taxes. They were; however, warned not to adopt oppressive measures. He exhorted his officials to be scrupulously honest. He asked all concerned to do their duties diligently and conscientiously. He wanted that law and order should be maintained strictly. That all miscreants should be rounded up and suitably punished. He brought home to all concerned that he would not tolerate any dereliction of duty on the part of any official high or low. He emphasized the need of promoting Islamic values.
The plan of Ali was that soon after the victory of Basra when the morale of his forces was high, he should invade Syria and bring Muawiyah to his knees. Ali soon found that there were difficulties in the materialization of such plan. The Bedouins of Kufa were once again at their game of creating discontent against the established authority. In the Battle of the Camel, in spite of the victory of Ali, many persons of Kufa had been killed. There was hardly any family which had not lost someone in the battle. The people of Kufa mourned the death of such persons, and they were not inclined to risk another war. At Basra, Ali had prohibited his men to pillage Basra, enslave the Basrites or, plunder their property. The Battle of Basra had not brought any material gain to the people of Kufa, and they were reluctant to undertake another campaign, unless they were assured of some material advantage.
Ali appointed his relatives and friends as the Governors of some provinces. Ashtar, the Bedouin leader of Kufa, stirred trouble by criticizing Ali for such appointments. To the people of Kufa he said, "What benefit has accrued to us in shedding the blood of Othman for his favoritism when his successor is to indulge in the same practice?" Those who mourned for the deaths of their dear ones in the Battle of Basra posed the question, "What have we gained in fighting against the Mother of the Faithful?" Thus hardly had Ali begun his rule in Kufa when the embers of discontent began to smolder in the capital city. The irony of the situation was that Ali had hardly any military force at his disposal which he could put into the field by his order. He had to raise volunteers for any action and the people had their own moods. The initiative had thus came to rest with them, and they dictated terms subject to which they would fight. By shifting the capital from Madina, Ali could not expect much help from Madina or Makkah, and he had to depend heavily on the people of Kufa. The difficulty with the people of Kufa was that they would not fight for a cause; they could be induced to fight only for some material advantage.
The difficulties of Ali increased when trouble began in the province of Seestan. The trouble was created by the followers of Abdullah bin Saba, the man who had led the revolt against Othman. The extremist section among these rebels considered that there was no fun in killing one Caliph when he was to be succeeded by another Caliph. The aim of these rebels was that they should capture power for themselves, and set up an independent state. When Ayesha had captured, she had executed all such Basrites who were involved in the assassination of Othman. Although Ali defeated the confederates yet he had taken no action to avenge the death of those Basrites. The followers of Ibn Sabah raised the cry for the vengeance for the execution of these parties. They gained ascendancy in Seestan, which province broke into open revolt, and refused to pay taxes. Ali sent a force from Kufa to put down the revolt. The force of Ali suffered defeat. Another force sent from Kufa met a similar fate. It appears that there was some treachery in the ranks of the force of Ali. Ali thereafter raised another force from Yemen, and other parts of the empire and sent it to Seestan under the command of Abdullah bin Abbas, the Governor of Basra. This time the rebels were defeated, and the revolt was suppressed. The campaigns in Seestan affected the prestige of the caliphate, and proved to be a great strain on the already meager resources at the disposal of the caliphate. In the campaign against Seestan much time was lost, and this loss of time worked to the advantage of Muawiyah and the disadvantage of Ali. According to one account the trouble in Seestan was created by the agents of Muawiyah who had no scruples in making common cause with the murderers of Othman.
After winning the victory at Basra, Ali came to feel that as he had won a victory at Basra against Ayesha, Talha and Zubair, so would he be able to win a victory against Muawiyah. For a campaign against Syria, the response from the people of Madina had been poor. As the people of Madina were religiously more advanced they were averse to side with any party for an armed conflict among the Muslims. Some eminent companions in Madina had even abstained from taking the oath of allegiance to Ali, and had preferred to follow a policy of neutrality. As such Ali felt that for any confrontation with Muawiyah, Madina could not serve as a base.
When Othman had been assassinated, the rebels had violated the sanctity of the holy city of the holy Prophet. Ali was accordingly of the view that in order to preserve the sanctity of the holy city of Madina, it was expedient that the political capital should be shifted elsewhere so that the sacred city should be spared the ordeals of facing political storms.
In the campaign against Basra, Ali had succeeded in raising a large force from Kufa. Ali hoped that after the victory of Basra, the prospects of raising a still larger force from Kufa for the campaign against Syria would be brighter. Geographically Kufa was more centrally located, and a war against Syria could be carried more advantageously with the base at Kufa instead of Madina. Those considerations prompted Ali to establish his capital at Kufa.
Kufa was a new colony town founded in the late thirties of the seventh century during the caliphate of Umar. It was founded as a military cantonment consequent upon the Muslim conquest of Iraq. The town was populated by the Bedouins of Northern Arabia. These tribes originally belonged to Yemen. In the ancient period Yemen was known for its highly developed culture. The Yemenites boasted that they were the people who had taken their culture to ancient Egypt. They claimed to be the fathers of Arabian culture. Their culture was tribal in character, and though they had accepted Islam their culture at all retained many features of the pre-Islamic culture of the age of ignorance.
The city of Kufa was divided into a number of quarters, and each quarter was populated by one tribe. These people were late comers to Islam. Most of them apostatized after the death of the Holy Prophet as a result of the apostasy war. During the caliphate of Abu Bakr, they were reconverted to Islam. During the caliphate of Umar they played an important part in the conquest of Persia, Iran and Syria. Umar availed of the services of the men of Kufa in the ranks of his army, but he did not confer on them higher posts of trust and responsibility. Under Othman they came to hold high army posts. As long as the process of foreign conquests continued, all things remained quiet within the country. When the process of foreign conquests came to a grinding halt, disturbances broke out within the country in the revolt against Othman, the people of Kufa had taken the main part. When after the death of Othman, Ali became the Caliph, the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was raised, and things became difficult for Ali, he had to seek the help of the people of Kufa. Indeed the victory of Basra was mainly due to the support of Ali by the people of Kufa. The rebels of Kufa who had participated in the murder of Othman had favored the election of Zubair as the Caliph, but later they chose to support Ali, and fight against Zubair at Basra. As the people of Kufa were late comers to the fold of Islam, they had not fully imbibed the Islamic values, and they became notorious for their perfidy and treachery. The purer Arabs of Hijaz regarded the Kufans as the "Bedouin element," the rabble of the Arabian stock.
Ali reorganized the administration. He appointed Governors and administrators for various provinces and districts. He appointed Qazis for the various cities. He issued instructions requiring his officers to administer justice with a stern hand. He asked the tax collectors to be prompt in the collection of taxes. They were; however, warned not to adopt oppressive measures. He exhorted his officials to be scrupulously honest. He asked all concerned to do their duties diligently and conscientiously. He wanted that law and order should be maintained strictly. That all miscreants should be rounded up and suitably punished. He brought home to all concerned that he would not tolerate any dereliction of duty on the part of any official high or low. He emphasized the need of promoting Islamic values.
The plan of Ali was that soon after the victory of Basra when the morale of his forces was high, he should invade Syria and bring Muawiyah to his knees. Ali soon found that there were difficulties in the materialization of such plan. The Bedouins of Kufa were once again at their game of creating discontent against the established authority. In the Battle of the Camel, in spite of the victory of Ali, many persons of Kufa had been killed. There was hardly any family which had not lost someone in the battle. The people of Kufa mourned the death of such persons, and they were not inclined to risk another war. At Basra, Ali had prohibited his men to pillage Basra, enslave the Basrites or, plunder their property. The Battle of Basra had not brought any material gain to the people of Kufa, and they were reluctant to undertake another campaign, unless they were assured of some material advantage.
Ali appointed his relatives and friends as the Governors of some provinces. Ashtar, the Bedouin leader of Kufa, stirred trouble by criticizing Ali for such appointments. To the people of Kufa he said, "What benefit has accrued to us in shedding the blood of Othman for his favoritism when his successor is to indulge in the same practice?" Those who mourned for the deaths of their dear ones in the Battle of Basra posed the question, "What have we gained in fighting against the Mother of the Faithful?" Thus hardly had Ali begun his rule in Kufa when the embers of discontent began to smolder in the capital city. The irony of the situation was that Ali had hardly any military force at his disposal which he could put into the field by his order. He had to raise volunteers for any action and the people had their own moods. The initiative had thus came to rest with them, and they dictated terms subject to which they would fight. By shifting the capital from Madina, Ali could not expect much help from Madina or Makkah, and he had to depend heavily on the people of Kufa. The difficulty with the people of Kufa was that they would not fight for a cause; they could be induced to fight only for some material advantage.
The difficulties of Ali increased when trouble began in the province of Seestan. The trouble was created by the followers of Abdullah bin Saba, the man who had led the revolt against Othman. The extremist section among these rebels considered that there was no fun in killing one Caliph when he was to be succeeded by another Caliph. The aim of these rebels was that they should capture power for themselves, and set up an independent state. When Ayesha had captured, she had executed all such Basrites who were involved in the assassination of Othman. Although Ali defeated the confederates yet he had taken no action to avenge the death of those Basrites. The followers of Ibn Sabah raised the cry for the vengeance for the execution of these parties. They gained ascendancy in Seestan, which province broke into open revolt, and refused to pay taxes. Ali sent a force from Kufa to put down the revolt. The force of Ali suffered defeat. Another force sent from Kufa met a similar fate. It appears that there was some treachery in the ranks of the force of Ali. Ali thereafter raised another force from Yemen, and other parts of the empire and sent it to Seestan under the command of Abdullah bin Abbas, the Governor of Basra. This time the rebels were defeated, and the revolt was suppressed. The campaigns in Seestan affected the prestige of the caliphate, and proved to be a great strain on the already meager resources at the disposal of the caliphate. In the campaign against Seestan much time was lost, and this loss of time worked to the advantage of Muawiyah and the disadvantage of Ali. According to one account the trouble in Seestan was created by the agents of Muawiyah who had no scruples in making common cause with the murderers of Othman.
Problems in Egypt
Among the provinces of the Muslim Commonwealth, Egypt was the most important province. In the revolt against Othman the Egyptian rebels had played the leading role. Ali was popular among the Egyptians, and the proposal to elect Ali as the Caliph was in the first instance sponsored by the Egyptians. When Muawiyah who led the opposition against Ali was strongly entrenched in Syria, it was vital for Ali that he should have a strong hold on Egypt. In this context the question of the appointment of a Governor for Egypt was a matter of utmost importance.
During the caliphate of Othman, Abdullah bin Abi Sarah was the Governor of Egypt. When the opposition to Othman gathered strength, Abdullah bin Abi Sarah was overthrown by Muhammad bin Hudaifa. Muhammad b Hudaifa was a cousin of Othman. When Hudaifa died, Othman took over the responsibility for the upbringing of Muhammad, and treated him as a son when Muhammad grew up he fell out with Othman and escaped to Egypt where he incited the people to rebel against the authority of Othman. In the confusion following the assassination of Othman, Muhammad bin Abi Hudaifa was enticed by Muawiyah to come to Arish on the borders of Palestine where he was murdered treacherously. Muawiyah's attempt to conquer Egypt, however, failed.
On becoming the Caliph, Ali appointed Qais bin Sa'ad as the Governor of Egypt. He was a seasoned warrior and enjoyed great fame for his wisdom and diplomacy. He belonged to a distinguished Ansar family of Madina. He was proud of his lineage and was much devoted to Ali. Ali asked him to take with him some troops from Madina. Qais said that the Caliph needed the troops at Madina, and he would not like to weaken the defenses of Madina in any way. Qais left for Madina with a retinue consisting of seven persons only.
The affairs of Egypt were at that time in a state great disarray. By great skill and bravery, Qais succeeded in assuming the charge of the governorship of Egypt. He addressed the people in the mosque, and delivered to them Ali's message of goodwill. He took the oath of allegiance to Ali from the people. Saddled in power, Qais sent his agents to the various parts of Egypt to obtain the oath of allegiance of the people to Ali. Such oath was subscribed to by all the people with two exceptions. In Kharbata, the Banu Adlaj led by Yazid Harith did not take the oath of allegiance to Ali. The tribe led by the chief Muslama bin Mukhalled were pro-Othman and their sympathies were with the Umayyads and Muawiyah. With great tact and diplomatic skill, Qais bin Saad succeeded in making a treaty of neutrality with them. They undertook that if they were not pressed to take an oath of allegiance to Ali, they would not create any trouble for the government of Egypt or the caliphate of Ali. Qais considered that to neutralize these people, was in the best interests of the caliphate, and it was not expedient to press them to take the oath of allegiance to Ali.
The plan of Muawiyah was that with Yazid bin Harith, and Miasmal bin Mukhalled he would create trouble for the government of Egypt. By making a treaty of neutrality with these people, Qais denied Muawiyah the possibility of having a foothold in Egypt. Thereupon he tried to cultivate Qais. Muawiyah asked Qais to join him, and in lieu thereof he promised him and his posterity the governorship of Egypt in perpetuity. Qais spurned this offer and declared that he was loyal to Ali and could not betray him at any cost. Muawiyah changed his tactics, and tried to make Qais believe that in supporting Ali he was supporting the murderers of Othman. Qais repudiated this view. He said that he was in Madina when Othman was assassinated and it was incorrect that Ali had supported the rebels or was involved in any way with the murder of Othman.
Having failed to win over Qais to his side, Muawiyah resorted to intrigue to create suspicion between Ali and Qais. Muawiyah whipped up propaganda to the effect that Qais was his ally, and would betray Ali at the proper time for such revolt. In proof of his claim for the friendship of Qais he asserted that Qais had not suppressed the party of the Egyptians who demanded vengeance for the blood of Othman and had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali.
The agents of Muawiyah carried the propaganda to Kufa, and when Ali came to know of these persistent rumors he began to harbor doubts about the loyalty of Qais. Muhammad bin Jafar and Muhammad bin Abu Bakr the step sons of Ali pressed on Ali to put Qais to test. The two young men argued prima facie that there appeared to be truth in the rumors, for Qais had in fact not taken any action against the people who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, but had on the other hand tried to conciliate them. In order to test the loyalty of Qais, Ali directed Qais to take into custody the chiefs of the tribes who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali and who stood for vengeance for the blood of Othman.
Qais wrote back to say that it would be inexpedient to arrest the chiefs of the people. They had entered into a treaty of neutrality with him, and they were abiding by the treaty. The treaty stipulated that as long as they were not pressed to take the oath of allegiance to Ali they would not raise the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman. He observed that he had established law and order in the province with some difficulty, and if the chiefs were arrested that would create unrest and law and order situation. The government of Egypt would in that case be accused of breach of faith and that would provide an opportunity to Muawiyah to interfere in the affairs of Egypt. He pointed out that being the man on the spot he knew what course of action was in the interests of the Caliphate. He pointed out that he had framed his policies in the best interests of the Caliphate and any change therein at that stage would adversely affect the interests of the Caliphate. He advised Ali to review his order and not to press for any action against the people who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, but were otherwise not creating any trouble for the administration. Qais added that if Ali did not agree with him it was open to him to depose him and appoint another Governor.
The arguments advanced by Qais did not carry weight with Ali that made Ali suspicious of the loyalty of Qais. The stand taken by Qais against the orders of Ali was interpreted by Ali to be an evidence of Qais's alignment with those who wanted to create trouble for Ali by raising the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman. Ali deposed Qais. When Muawiyah came to know of these developments he felt happy that his plan to sow dissentions between Ali and Qais had succeeded. He invited Qais to come over to Syria after his deposition, and offered him a high office. Qais refused the offer. He held that though Ali had misunderstood him and treated him unjustly yet this could not affect his loyalty to Ali. After deposition Qais returned to Madina. The deposition of Qais from the governorship of Egypt proved to be a great mistake. It set the stage for the occupation of Egypt by Muawiyah.
Muawiyah and his agents scored a victory where their intrigues succeeded and Qais was deposed. The next line of action on the part of Muawiyah was to win over Qais to his side. When Muawyiah failed in this object because of the unswerving loyalty of Qais to Ali, Muawyiah made further efforts to insure that Qais and Ali did not reconcile. The agents of Muawyiah in Madina tried to persuade Qais to abandon the cause of Ali, but when he refused to fall in line with them they began to taunt him for his loyalty to the man who did not appreciate his services and the way Ali had treated him. Exasperated by such taunts, Qais decided to visit Ali at Kufa, and demand a fair hearing from Ali. Ali received Qais with due courtesy. The two men had a heart to heart dialogue. As a result of these talks, Ali was convinced of the loyalty of Qais. Ali wanted Qais to remain by his side, and he appointed him as his Chief Adviser. The reaction of Muawyiah to the appointment of Qais as the Chief Adviser of Ali was expressed by him in a letter to his agent in Madina who had taunted Qais in the following words: "By taunting Qais and thereby forcing him to join Ali you have acted as a fool had you given a hundred thousand men to Ali, it would have been a lesser evil to me than to give the counsel of such a man as Qais to my enemy."
Muawiyah was shrewd enough to see that for any confrontation with Ali, it was necessary that Egypt should be wrested from the control of Ali. It was plain enough that if Egypt was to be with Ali, Egypt could very well thrust a dagger in the back of Syria. It was in this context that Muawiyah tried to get Qais removed from the governorship. He succeeded in this effort when Ali deposed Qais bin Sa'ad and appointed Muhammad bin Abu Bakr in his place as the Governor of Egypt. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was a rash impetuous young man, and Muawyiah felt sure that he would not be able to effectively control the affairs of Egypt. Muawiyah's plan was to create disturbances in Egypt, and take advantage of such disturbances to capture Egypt. For this purpose he needed a man who commanded influence in Egypt. When he looked around he realized that the most suitable person in this behalf was Amr b Al-Aas. During the Caliphate of Umar he invaded Egypt and conquered it. In the history of Islam he enjoys fame as the "Conqueror of Egypt". Umar appointed him as the Governor of Egypt. When Othman became the Caliph, he allowed Amr to continue as the Governor of Egypt for some time. Later Amr was deposed and Othman appointed his foster brother as the Governor of Egypt. He accordingly invited Amr b Al-Aas to Damascus. When Amr came to Damascus he was given an almost royal reception. The two men agreed to make common cause against Ali. Muawiyah decided to make Amr the Commander-in-Chief of his forces. He was also promised the governorship of Egypt on the conquest of that province. Such alliance between Muawiyah and Amr b Al-Aas was to prove a great setback for Ali. It is strange that Muawiyah fought against Ali to claim vengeance for the blood of Othman, and yet entrusted the command of his forces to a man who had actually incited the Egyptians to revolt, and had openly defied and thrown a challenge to Othman.
During the caliphate of Othman, Abdullah bin Abi Sarah was the Governor of Egypt. When the opposition to Othman gathered strength, Abdullah bin Abi Sarah was overthrown by Muhammad bin Hudaifa. Muhammad b Hudaifa was a cousin of Othman. When Hudaifa died, Othman took over the responsibility for the upbringing of Muhammad, and treated him as a son when Muhammad grew up he fell out with Othman and escaped to Egypt where he incited the people to rebel against the authority of Othman. In the confusion following the assassination of Othman, Muhammad bin Abi Hudaifa was enticed by Muawiyah to come to Arish on the borders of Palestine where he was murdered treacherously. Muawiyah's attempt to conquer Egypt, however, failed.
On becoming the Caliph, Ali appointed Qais bin Sa'ad as the Governor of Egypt. He was a seasoned warrior and enjoyed great fame for his wisdom and diplomacy. He belonged to a distinguished Ansar family of Madina. He was proud of his lineage and was much devoted to Ali. Ali asked him to take with him some troops from Madina. Qais said that the Caliph needed the troops at Madina, and he would not like to weaken the defenses of Madina in any way. Qais left for Madina with a retinue consisting of seven persons only.
The affairs of Egypt were at that time in a state great disarray. By great skill and bravery, Qais succeeded in assuming the charge of the governorship of Egypt. He addressed the people in the mosque, and delivered to them Ali's message of goodwill. He took the oath of allegiance to Ali from the people. Saddled in power, Qais sent his agents to the various parts of Egypt to obtain the oath of allegiance of the people to Ali. Such oath was subscribed to by all the people with two exceptions. In Kharbata, the Banu Adlaj led by Yazid Harith did not take the oath of allegiance to Ali. The tribe led by the chief Muslama bin Mukhalled were pro-Othman and their sympathies were with the Umayyads and Muawiyah. With great tact and diplomatic skill, Qais bin Saad succeeded in making a treaty of neutrality with them. They undertook that if they were not pressed to take an oath of allegiance to Ali, they would not create any trouble for the government of Egypt or the caliphate of Ali. Qais considered that to neutralize these people, was in the best interests of the caliphate, and it was not expedient to press them to take the oath of allegiance to Ali.
The plan of Muawiyah was that with Yazid bin Harith, and Miasmal bin Mukhalled he would create trouble for the government of Egypt. By making a treaty of neutrality with these people, Qais denied Muawiyah the possibility of having a foothold in Egypt. Thereupon he tried to cultivate Qais. Muawiyah asked Qais to join him, and in lieu thereof he promised him and his posterity the governorship of Egypt in perpetuity. Qais spurned this offer and declared that he was loyal to Ali and could not betray him at any cost. Muawiyah changed his tactics, and tried to make Qais believe that in supporting Ali he was supporting the murderers of Othman. Qais repudiated this view. He said that he was in Madina when Othman was assassinated and it was incorrect that Ali had supported the rebels or was involved in any way with the murder of Othman.
Having failed to win over Qais to his side, Muawiyah resorted to intrigue to create suspicion between Ali and Qais. Muawiyah whipped up propaganda to the effect that Qais was his ally, and would betray Ali at the proper time for such revolt. In proof of his claim for the friendship of Qais he asserted that Qais had not suppressed the party of the Egyptians who demanded vengeance for the blood of Othman and had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali.
The agents of Muawiyah carried the propaganda to Kufa, and when Ali came to know of these persistent rumors he began to harbor doubts about the loyalty of Qais. Muhammad bin Jafar and Muhammad bin Abu Bakr the step sons of Ali pressed on Ali to put Qais to test. The two young men argued prima facie that there appeared to be truth in the rumors, for Qais had in fact not taken any action against the people who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, but had on the other hand tried to conciliate them. In order to test the loyalty of Qais, Ali directed Qais to take into custody the chiefs of the tribes who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali and who stood for vengeance for the blood of Othman.
Qais wrote back to say that it would be inexpedient to arrest the chiefs of the people. They had entered into a treaty of neutrality with him, and they were abiding by the treaty. The treaty stipulated that as long as they were not pressed to take the oath of allegiance to Ali they would not raise the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman. He observed that he had established law and order in the province with some difficulty, and if the chiefs were arrested that would create unrest and law and order situation. The government of Egypt would in that case be accused of breach of faith and that would provide an opportunity to Muawiyah to interfere in the affairs of Egypt. He pointed out that being the man on the spot he knew what course of action was in the interests of the Caliphate. He pointed out that he had framed his policies in the best interests of the Caliphate and any change therein at that stage would adversely affect the interests of the Caliphate. He advised Ali to review his order and not to press for any action against the people who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, but were otherwise not creating any trouble for the administration. Qais added that if Ali did not agree with him it was open to him to depose him and appoint another Governor.
The arguments advanced by Qais did not carry weight with Ali that made Ali suspicious of the loyalty of Qais. The stand taken by Qais against the orders of Ali was interpreted by Ali to be an evidence of Qais's alignment with those who wanted to create trouble for Ali by raising the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman. Ali deposed Qais. When Muawiyah came to know of these developments he felt happy that his plan to sow dissentions between Ali and Qais had succeeded. He invited Qais to come over to Syria after his deposition, and offered him a high office. Qais refused the offer. He held that though Ali had misunderstood him and treated him unjustly yet this could not affect his loyalty to Ali. After deposition Qais returned to Madina. The deposition of Qais from the governorship of Egypt proved to be a great mistake. It set the stage for the occupation of Egypt by Muawiyah.
Muawiyah and his agents scored a victory where their intrigues succeeded and Qais was deposed. The next line of action on the part of Muawiyah was to win over Qais to his side. When Muawyiah failed in this object because of the unswerving loyalty of Qais to Ali, Muawyiah made further efforts to insure that Qais and Ali did not reconcile. The agents of Muawyiah in Madina tried to persuade Qais to abandon the cause of Ali, but when he refused to fall in line with them they began to taunt him for his loyalty to the man who did not appreciate his services and the way Ali had treated him. Exasperated by such taunts, Qais decided to visit Ali at Kufa, and demand a fair hearing from Ali. Ali received Qais with due courtesy. The two men had a heart to heart dialogue. As a result of these talks, Ali was convinced of the loyalty of Qais. Ali wanted Qais to remain by his side, and he appointed him as his Chief Adviser. The reaction of Muawyiah to the appointment of Qais as the Chief Adviser of Ali was expressed by him in a letter to his agent in Madina who had taunted Qais in the following words: "By taunting Qais and thereby forcing him to join Ali you have acted as a fool had you given a hundred thousand men to Ali, it would have been a lesser evil to me than to give the counsel of such a man as Qais to my enemy."
Muawiyah was shrewd enough to see that for any confrontation with Ali, it was necessary that Egypt should be wrested from the control of Ali. It was plain enough that if Egypt was to be with Ali, Egypt could very well thrust a dagger in the back of Syria. It was in this context that Muawiyah tried to get Qais removed from the governorship. He succeeded in this effort when Ali deposed Qais bin Sa'ad and appointed Muhammad bin Abu Bakr in his place as the Governor of Egypt. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was a rash impetuous young man, and Muawyiah felt sure that he would not be able to effectively control the affairs of Egypt. Muawiyah's plan was to create disturbances in Egypt, and take advantage of such disturbances to capture Egypt. For this purpose he needed a man who commanded influence in Egypt. When he looked around he realized that the most suitable person in this behalf was Amr b Al-Aas. During the Caliphate of Umar he invaded Egypt and conquered it. In the history of Islam he enjoys fame as the "Conqueror of Egypt". Umar appointed him as the Governor of Egypt. When Othman became the Caliph, he allowed Amr to continue as the Governor of Egypt for some time. Later Amr was deposed and Othman appointed his foster brother as the Governor of Egypt. He accordingly invited Amr b Al-Aas to Damascus. When Amr came to Damascus he was given an almost royal reception. The two men agreed to make common cause against Ali. Muawiyah decided to make Amr the Commander-in-Chief of his forces. He was also promised the governorship of Egypt on the conquest of that province. Such alliance between Muawiyah and Amr b Al-Aas was to prove a great setback for Ali. It is strange that Muawiyah fought against Ali to claim vengeance for the blood of Othman, and yet entrusted the command of his forces to a man who had actually incited the Egyptians to revolt, and had openly defied and thrown a challenge to Othman.
Developments towards Battle of Siffin
After Ali had established his capital at Kufa, the task before him was to tackle the problem of Syria through peaceful means, if possible, and through the use of sword, if otherwise. Muawiyah had defied the authority of Ali and in the interests of the solidarity of Islam. It was necessary that Muawiyah should be persuaded to submit to the authority of Ali, and if he was not inclined to listen to reason, action should be taken against him as any government would take an action against a rebel.
As a matter of fact, Ali planned an action against Syria immediately after his election. The expedition against Syria had to be deferred as the response of the people of Madina for a war against Syria was poor. Later, complications arose when Talha and Zubair defected, and under the leadership of Ayesha the confederates occupied Basra. In the circumstances, Ali was forced to march to Basra instead of Syria. Ali won the victory at Basra, and the revolt of the confederates was successfully suppressed, though with considerable loss.
Ali had a plan to march against Syria just after his victory of Basra. The expedition had however to be deferred. Ali needed some time to consolidate his rule at Kufa. Adequate response from the people of Kufa to undertake an expedition against Syria was not forthcoming. Further complications arose when a revolt broke out in Seestan. This revolt was suppressed with some difficulty.
After suppression of the revolt in Seestan, Ali once more turned to the affairs of Syria. By this time, a year had elapsed since the election of Ali. During this period, Muawiyah had added to his strength. He had persisted in his propaganda in the name of vengeance for the blood of Othman. Ali felt that the expedition against Syria had already been sufficiently delayed, and such immediate action to tackle the problem effectively was called for.
Although Ali had every justification to lead a military expedition to Syria forthwith, he nevertheless decided to explore the possibilities of arriving at a settlement through peaceful means in the first instance. He wanted to send an envoy to Muawiyah, and in this connection he looked for man who commanded some influence with Muawiyah. The choice of Ali in this connection fell on Jarir bin Abdullah. He was the Governor of Hamdan under Othman. Ali had retained him in his office, and he had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali. He was a personal friend of Muawiyah. Ali summoned Jarir bin Abdullah to Kufa, and commissioned him to proceed as his envoy to Syria and prevail upon Muawiyah to submit to the authority of Ali. Malik Ashtar the leader of the regicides advised Ali that Jarir should not be sent to Syria for he was a friend of Muawiyah, and he would promote the interests of Muawiyah, rather than those of Ali. Ashtar opted to go himself. As Malik Ashtar was involved in the assassination of Othman, Ali did not consider it advisable to send him as an envoy to Syria.
Jarir bin Abdullah went to Syria. He was warmly received by Muawiyah. Jarir tried to persuade Muawiyah to submit to the authority of Ali. Ali, so argued Jarir was the elected Caliph, and in the interests of the solidarity of Islam it was necessary to maintain the unity of Ummah. Muawiyah detained Jarir, and asked him to see things for himself. In the main mosque of Damascus the blood stained shirt and the amputated fingers of Naila were displayed and as the faithful entered the mosque and looked at these relics they wept and mourned at the death of Othman. They took the oath that they would not rest content until they had avenged the murder of Othman. Jarir bin Abdullah visited other cities in Syria, and everywhere he saw the people prepared for war to avenge the death of Othman.
Jarir bin Abdullah returned to Kufa to report that the people of Syria were bent upon making war to avenge the death of Othman. On the failure of the mission of Jarir, Malik Ashtar said that he already knew that nothing could come out of his mission as he was Muawiyah's man. Malik Ashtar said that if he had been sent as an envoy the results would have been different. Jarir retorted that the people of Syria would have murdered him. Ashtar said that he would have first murdered Muawiyah. Hot words were exchanged between Malik Ashtar and Jarir. Jarir felt disgusted and shifted to Syria where he was well looked after by Muawiyah.
When Muawiyah incited the people of Syria to war against Ali there were some people who were averse to the Muslims fighting among themselves. A group of such persons led by Abu Muslim waited on Muawiyah, and advised him to abstain from war. Muawiyah said that all that he wanted was "Qasas" for the murder of Othman which was a religious obligation for him. He added that if Ali took the Qasas from those who were involved in the murder of Othman, or handed over such persons to him he would be prepared to offer allegiance to Ali. Abu Muslim volunteered to go to Kufa as an envoy of Muawiyah. Muawiyah agreed and sent him to Ali as his envoy. Ali took the envoy to the mosque and there explained to the people the purpose of his mission. Thereupon all the people assembled in the mosque cried with one voice "We all are the murderers of Othman." Turning to the envoy Ali said "You may tell Muawiyah what you have seen and heard". Abu Muslim returned disappointed to Syria. Things had come to be tied in such knots that there appeared to be no possibility of resolving that dispute through peaceful means. On one side, the people of Syria clamored for war to avenge the murder of Othman, and on the other side, the people of Iraq held that they all were the murderers of Othman. In the circumstances, war appeared to be inevitable. Muawiyah maintained that just as the confederates under Ayesha invaded Basra to take action against such Basrites who were involved in the murder of Othman, thus he would have to invade Iraq to punish those who were guilty of the murder of Othman. The stand of Ali was that the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext for capturing power, for in case Muawiyah was really interested in claiming "Qasas." The proper course for him was to take the oath of allegiance to him, and then lodge a claim for "Qasas" in the usual way enjoined by law. Ali maintained that if Muawiyah persisted in his stand and refused to listen to reason there would be no option with him (Ali), but to fight against Muawiyah as he had fought against the confederates at Basra.
When war between Ali and Muawiyah became inevitable, preparations for a show down were made by both the sides. Ali managed to raise an army 90,000 strong. It included men from Kufa, Iraq, Basra and Madina. Ali made Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of his forces. The army was divided into a number of commands and each command had its own commander.
In the correspondence that was exchanged between the two sides, option was given to Ali to lead the force to Syria or let the Syrian forces come to Iraq Ali opted to lead his forces to Syria. In March 657, Ali set out from Kufa at the head of his army. From Rufa the army proceeded to Madina. Here more troops joined the army of Ali. From Madina Ali set out for Syria. His plan was to march through Upper Mesopotamia and invade Syria from the north. The advance guard of the army advanced along the western bank of the Euphrates. The main army under Ali advanced up to the Tigris, and thereafter entered the Mesopotamian desert.
The march of the army through the desert was a great ordeal. The long trek across the desert exhausted the water supplies at the disposal of the troops, and the absence of water became an acute problem. Ali sent his scouts to inquire of the tribesmen in the desert whether there were any wells or springs in the neighborhood which could supply water to the troops. The tribesmen said that there were no wells or spring in the neighborhood.
Ali had heard that some centuries ago the Israeli patriarchs had dug wells in the desert, and he hoped to be able to find out these ancient sites. The scouts who contacted the tribes in the desert were not able to get any clue of a spring or a well in the desert. One of the scouts, however, brought back with him an old Christian hermit who said that there was indeed a cistern in the neighborhood in the past, but it had gone dry. The hermit added that according to old legends, a hidden well existed somewhere in the neighborhood, and its mouth was covered with an enormous stone, but no one knew about the actual site of the legendary well. He observed that according to popular belief no one could locate the hidden well, except a prophet or the representative of a prophet.
Ali himself proceeded on a survey of the desert. At one place Ali saw a huge stone, and he asked his men to dig at that site. Miraculously a well was discovered at the site the water supply whereof was more than enough for the needs of the troops. As the ancient well was discovered, the Christian hermit was thrilled at the miracle. Addressing Ali he said that verily he was the representative of the prophet about whose advent the scriptures had predicted. He hastened to accept Islam at the hands of Ali. He presented to Ali an old parchment belonging to Simon, a companion of Jesus Christ on which was recorded a prophesy about the advent of the last prophet. The parchment also foretold of the lifting of the stone of the well by a representative of the last prophet.
The discovery of the source of water in the desert came as a matter of great relief to the troops of Ali. It raised their morale and fortified them with the faith they were fighting for the vindication of the truth. The news of the recovery of the well in the desert impressed the tribes in the neighborhood and they joined Ali in the war against Muawiyah.
After crossing the desert, Ali and his troops pushed on Al-Raqqa on the left bank of the Euphrates, here they had to cross the river. They asked the people of Al-Raqqa to provide them boats and build a bridge of boats for them. The people of Al Raqqa said that in the war between the Muslim people they would remain neutral and as such they could not construct the bridge for them. Thereupon Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali challenged the people of Al-Raqqa that unless they provided the necessary boats and constructed the bridge for them, he would declare war against them, and order their massacre. The people of Al-Raqqa consulted among themselves and ultimately agreed to construct the bridge of boats for the army of Ali to cross the river.
After crossing the river, the troops of Ali advanced along the right bank of the river in the direction of Aleppo. Here they came across the Syrian vanguard. The Syrians did not risk a skirmish with the forces of Ali and withdrew precipitately.
At Sur-Rum, along the borders of Syria, the Ali forces had a skirmish with the Syrian guards. The Syrians suffered defeat and retreated. Thereafter the forces of Ali reached the plain of Siffin, where they found the Syrian forces under Muawiyah drawn up in strength and waiting for them.
As the troops of Ali arrived in the valley of Siffin, it was found that the forces of Muawiyah had already occupied the best part of the valley. There was only one source of water supply in the valley, and Muawiyah had so arrayed his forces that they controlled the water supply of the whole valley, and the troops of Ali had no access to water at any place. The strategy of Muawiyah obviously was to force a defeat on Ali by exposing his troops to the rigors of thirst.
The first task of Ali was to gain an access to the source of water supply. Ali sent a letter to Muawiyah through a delegation. Ali pointed out to Muawiyah that according to the injunctions of Islam as well as according to the rules of warfare, access to water supply could not be denied to the combatants. Ali observed that any armed conflict between the two rides would lead to great loss of life on both the sides. He was therefore keen that the disputes between the two sides should be decided through peaceful negotiations. He added that he was not going to lead an attack unless all possibilities of peace had been exhausted. He brought home the point that in this context it was necessary that both the sides should have equal opportunities of access to water, and the area around the source of water supply should be declared a neutral zone. On receiving the letter of Ali, Muawiyah called his council of war. Amr bin Al Aas the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Muawiyah observed that according to the rules of warfare access to water had to be provided to the combatants from both the sides. He suggested that while maintaining over all control over the source of water supply they should allow the men of the forces of Ali to obtain water for their needs at specified hours subject to terms which might be mutually agreed upon.
Abdullah bin Abi Sirah, a former Governor of Egypt, and a foster brother of Othman suggested that they should adopt the tactics of delay by neither providing access to the water supply to the other side, nor refusing to do so. He was of the view that because of such delay the forces of Ali would have no option but to retreat from the valley, and when they were on a retreat they could be attacked in the rear.
Some counselors of Muawiyah held that they were seeking vengeance for the blood of Othman. The rebels had denied access to water to Othman. It was accordingly necessary that those who had subjected Othman to the rigors of thirst should likewise be subjected to the suffering. Muawiyah gave an evasive reply to the delegation that he had received from Ali. He did not refuse the demand outright, but did not accept it either. His game was to play for time. In the meantime, he sent reinforcements for his troops that guarded the source of water supply.
When the delegation of Ali returned from Muawiyah, Ali called for his own council of war. After deliberations it was decided that an immediate attack should be made to gain control of the source of water supply. In the action that followed there was hard fighting with lances and swords. Some persons were killed from both the sides, but ultimately the forces of Ali had the upper hand, and they dislodged the Syrians from all the points commanding access to the source of water supply.
Now the position was reversed, and Muawiyah had to approach Ali to allow the Syrians access to the source of water supply. Some of the counselors of Ali advised him to pay the Syrians in their own coin, and to refuse them access to the source of water supply. Ali overruled them saying that Islam did not permit them to stop the supply of water to their enemy. He said that he had to be guided by the Book of God, and he could not act in the way the people acted during the Age of Ignorance. While the troops of Ali maintained the over all control of the source of water supply, the troops of Muawiyah were allowed to have the water they needed at specified hours. During such hours men from both the sides came in contact, and the general feeling was that instead of resorting to an armed conflict, the disputes between the two sides should be settled through peaceful means.
The armies that lay in camp at Siffin facing each other were the largest armies so far assembled in the history of Islam. The irony was that such large armies had not been assembled to fight against the non-Muslims in the name of God. The misfortune was that the Muslims were arrayed to fight against the Muslims and each side claimed that it had taken the field for cause. Nevertheless both the sides wished to gain the end they had in view without an armed conflict. Ali instructed his men that they should not fire the first shot. Muawiyah likewise hesitated to take the initiative in beginning the war. With such large concentration of troops at one place, absolute peace was out of question. Isolated skirmishes took place every now and then leading to loss of life on both the sides. There was however no direct clash between the armies as a whole. For over two months the armies as whole remained quiet and in a state of suspense being officially neither at war, nor at peace. Then came the month of Moharrum and during this month the hostilities were officially suspended.During these months peace, overtures were made, and peace missions were exchanged between the two sides almost everyday. The missions that were sent by Ali to Muawiyah tried to make out the point that Muawiyah should fear God, and refrain from creating dissentions among the Muslims. He was told that as Ali had been elected as the Caliph, it was his bounden duty to owe allegiance to him. It was also pointed out that in view of his learning, piety, relationship with the Holy Prophet, services to Islam, and other extraordinary qualities of head and heart, he was the most suitable person to be the Caliph of the Muslims. The stand of Muawiyah was that the election of Ali was irregular as it had been held under the pressure of the rebels. He accused Ali of involvement in the murder of Othman. He observed that he was the cousin of Othman, and according to the injunctions of Islam it was incumbent on him to seek "Qasas" for the murder of Othman.
To the charges of Muawiyah, the emissaries of Ali maintained that the election of Ali had been elected by all the citizens of Madina. All previous regular elections of the Caliphs had been held by the people of Madina, and in the case of the election of Ali the electorate was the same. The rebels did not exercise pressure on the people of Madina to elect a particular person; their pressure was only to the extent that they should elect some person as the Caliph. The claims of all the eligible candidates were duly considered, and by general consensus, Ali was superior to all of them. In fact all other candidates had withdrawn their claims. If any, Muawiyah's contention was that Ali's election was vitiated because of his involvement in the murder of Othman. The emissaries of Ali observed that this accusation was false. Ali was neither directly nor indirectly involved in the assassination of Othman. As a matter of fact, Ali had tried his best to support Othman. They emphatically pointed out that to levy such a charge on a person of the caliber of Ali was sheer sacrilege. Muawiyah maintained that if Ali had supported Othman sincerely, the tragedy would have been avoided. The emissaries of Ali posed the question: You were entrenched in power in Syria, and you had an army at your disposal. You were fully aware of the difficulties of the situation. Why did you not take proper steps to defend Othman." Muawiyah had no satisfactory reply to this question. The emissaries of Ali thereafter posed another question: "During the last days of the siege of his home, Othman had asked the provincial governors including yourself to send him aid against the rebels. Why did you and the provincial governors not send the aid. Are you then not indirectly responsible for the assassination of Othman." Muawiyah had no answer to this question as well and that led to the exchange of hot and bitter words between Muawiyah and the emissaries of Ali.
The emissaries of Ali asked a further question: You say that if Ali had supported Othman the tragedy would have been avoided. Did Ali have any force at his disposal. If you who had a large army at your disposal could not avert the tragedy, how could Ali who had no force at his disposal avert the tragedy." Muawiyah said that if Ali was not involved in the murder of Othman he should hand over these murderers to him. The missions sent by Ali pointed out that the proper way to ask for Qasas was that he should offer the oath of allegiance to Ali and thereafter file a claim for Qasas before him. The delegates brought home to Muawiyah the fallacy in his stand. If his demand for Qasas was genuine he should have strengthened the hands of Ali to enable him bring the murderers of Othman to book. By rebelling against the authority of Ali he had enabled the murderers of Othman seek an alliance with Ali. In such circumstances it was impossible for Ali to take action against the persons who were his allies. It was pointed out with great force that the responsibility for complicating the state of affairs devolved on Muawiyah and not on Ali, who would have himself avenged the murder of Othman if difficulties had not been created in his way.
Muawiyah suggested that a way out of the difficulty was that he should be recognized as the Caliph of Syria while Ali could continue as the Caliph of the rest of the Muslim world. Ali did not agree to this proposal as this was regarded to be repugnant to the spirit of Islam. Ali also pointed out that this proposal on the part of Muawiyah had let the cat out of the bag and betrayed his real intention. That provided a conclusive proof to the effect that the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext to capture power.
Ali sent a message to Muawiyah that if all this fuss was about the caliphate between himself and Muawiyah, why create dissentions among the Muslims and shed the blood of innocent persons? In the usual Arab way, Ali proposed a duel with Muawiyah. It was pointed out that in that way whosoever survived would be the Caliph. Amr b Al Aas advised Muawiyah that the proposal of Ali should be accepted. Muawiyah hesitated to accept the proposal for he knew that Ali had so far fought hundreds of duels, and in all such duels his adversaries had been killed. Amr bin Al Aas pointed out that such was the case many years ago. With the lapse of time, Ali had grown fat and unwieldy and in any personal combat he was apt to lose the balance and be overpowered. Muawiyah, however, could not make up his mind to take the risk of a personal combat with Ali and he refused the offer. Thereafter all negotiations for peace broke down and both the sides began to prepare for war.
As a matter of fact, Ali planned an action against Syria immediately after his election. The expedition against Syria had to be deferred as the response of the people of Madina for a war against Syria was poor. Later, complications arose when Talha and Zubair defected, and under the leadership of Ayesha the confederates occupied Basra. In the circumstances, Ali was forced to march to Basra instead of Syria. Ali won the victory at Basra, and the revolt of the confederates was successfully suppressed, though with considerable loss.
Ali had a plan to march against Syria just after his victory of Basra. The expedition had however to be deferred. Ali needed some time to consolidate his rule at Kufa. Adequate response from the people of Kufa to undertake an expedition against Syria was not forthcoming. Further complications arose when a revolt broke out in Seestan. This revolt was suppressed with some difficulty.
After suppression of the revolt in Seestan, Ali once more turned to the affairs of Syria. By this time, a year had elapsed since the election of Ali. During this period, Muawiyah had added to his strength. He had persisted in his propaganda in the name of vengeance for the blood of Othman. Ali felt that the expedition against Syria had already been sufficiently delayed, and such immediate action to tackle the problem effectively was called for.
Although Ali had every justification to lead a military expedition to Syria forthwith, he nevertheless decided to explore the possibilities of arriving at a settlement through peaceful means in the first instance. He wanted to send an envoy to Muawiyah, and in this connection he looked for man who commanded some influence with Muawiyah. The choice of Ali in this connection fell on Jarir bin Abdullah. He was the Governor of Hamdan under Othman. Ali had retained him in his office, and he had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali. He was a personal friend of Muawiyah. Ali summoned Jarir bin Abdullah to Kufa, and commissioned him to proceed as his envoy to Syria and prevail upon Muawiyah to submit to the authority of Ali. Malik Ashtar the leader of the regicides advised Ali that Jarir should not be sent to Syria for he was a friend of Muawiyah, and he would promote the interests of Muawiyah, rather than those of Ali. Ashtar opted to go himself. As Malik Ashtar was involved in the assassination of Othman, Ali did not consider it advisable to send him as an envoy to Syria.
Jarir bin Abdullah went to Syria. He was warmly received by Muawiyah. Jarir tried to persuade Muawiyah to submit to the authority of Ali. Ali, so argued Jarir was the elected Caliph, and in the interests of the solidarity of Islam it was necessary to maintain the unity of Ummah. Muawiyah detained Jarir, and asked him to see things for himself. In the main mosque of Damascus the blood stained shirt and the amputated fingers of Naila were displayed and as the faithful entered the mosque and looked at these relics they wept and mourned at the death of Othman. They took the oath that they would not rest content until they had avenged the murder of Othman. Jarir bin Abdullah visited other cities in Syria, and everywhere he saw the people prepared for war to avenge the death of Othman.
Jarir bin Abdullah returned to Kufa to report that the people of Syria were bent upon making war to avenge the death of Othman. On the failure of the mission of Jarir, Malik Ashtar said that he already knew that nothing could come out of his mission as he was Muawiyah's man. Malik Ashtar said that if he had been sent as an envoy the results would have been different. Jarir retorted that the people of Syria would have murdered him. Ashtar said that he would have first murdered Muawiyah. Hot words were exchanged between Malik Ashtar and Jarir. Jarir felt disgusted and shifted to Syria where he was well looked after by Muawiyah.
When Muawiyah incited the people of Syria to war against Ali there were some people who were averse to the Muslims fighting among themselves. A group of such persons led by Abu Muslim waited on Muawiyah, and advised him to abstain from war. Muawiyah said that all that he wanted was "Qasas" for the murder of Othman which was a religious obligation for him. He added that if Ali took the Qasas from those who were involved in the murder of Othman, or handed over such persons to him he would be prepared to offer allegiance to Ali. Abu Muslim volunteered to go to Kufa as an envoy of Muawiyah. Muawiyah agreed and sent him to Ali as his envoy. Ali took the envoy to the mosque and there explained to the people the purpose of his mission. Thereupon all the people assembled in the mosque cried with one voice "We all are the murderers of Othman." Turning to the envoy Ali said "You may tell Muawiyah what you have seen and heard". Abu Muslim returned disappointed to Syria. Things had come to be tied in such knots that there appeared to be no possibility of resolving that dispute through peaceful means. On one side, the people of Syria clamored for war to avenge the murder of Othman, and on the other side, the people of Iraq held that they all were the murderers of Othman. In the circumstances, war appeared to be inevitable. Muawiyah maintained that just as the confederates under Ayesha invaded Basra to take action against such Basrites who were involved in the murder of Othman, thus he would have to invade Iraq to punish those who were guilty of the murder of Othman. The stand of Ali was that the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext for capturing power, for in case Muawiyah was really interested in claiming "Qasas." The proper course for him was to take the oath of allegiance to him, and then lodge a claim for "Qasas" in the usual way enjoined by law. Ali maintained that if Muawiyah persisted in his stand and refused to listen to reason there would be no option with him (Ali), but to fight against Muawiyah as he had fought against the confederates at Basra.
When war between Ali and Muawiyah became inevitable, preparations for a show down were made by both the sides. Ali managed to raise an army 90,000 strong. It included men from Kufa, Iraq, Basra and Madina. Ali made Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of his forces. The army was divided into a number of commands and each command had its own commander.
In the correspondence that was exchanged between the two sides, option was given to Ali to lead the force to Syria or let the Syrian forces come to Iraq Ali opted to lead his forces to Syria. In March 657, Ali set out from Kufa at the head of his army. From Rufa the army proceeded to Madina. Here more troops joined the army of Ali. From Madina Ali set out for Syria. His plan was to march through Upper Mesopotamia and invade Syria from the north. The advance guard of the army advanced along the western bank of the Euphrates. The main army under Ali advanced up to the Tigris, and thereafter entered the Mesopotamian desert.
The march of the army through the desert was a great ordeal. The long trek across the desert exhausted the water supplies at the disposal of the troops, and the absence of water became an acute problem. Ali sent his scouts to inquire of the tribesmen in the desert whether there were any wells or springs in the neighborhood which could supply water to the troops. The tribesmen said that there were no wells or spring in the neighborhood.
Ali had heard that some centuries ago the Israeli patriarchs had dug wells in the desert, and he hoped to be able to find out these ancient sites. The scouts who contacted the tribes in the desert were not able to get any clue of a spring or a well in the desert. One of the scouts, however, brought back with him an old Christian hermit who said that there was indeed a cistern in the neighborhood in the past, but it had gone dry. The hermit added that according to old legends, a hidden well existed somewhere in the neighborhood, and its mouth was covered with an enormous stone, but no one knew about the actual site of the legendary well. He observed that according to popular belief no one could locate the hidden well, except a prophet or the representative of a prophet.
Ali himself proceeded on a survey of the desert. At one place Ali saw a huge stone, and he asked his men to dig at that site. Miraculously a well was discovered at the site the water supply whereof was more than enough for the needs of the troops. As the ancient well was discovered, the Christian hermit was thrilled at the miracle. Addressing Ali he said that verily he was the representative of the prophet about whose advent the scriptures had predicted. He hastened to accept Islam at the hands of Ali. He presented to Ali an old parchment belonging to Simon, a companion of Jesus Christ on which was recorded a prophesy about the advent of the last prophet. The parchment also foretold of the lifting of the stone of the well by a representative of the last prophet.
The discovery of the source of water in the desert came as a matter of great relief to the troops of Ali. It raised their morale and fortified them with the faith they were fighting for the vindication of the truth. The news of the recovery of the well in the desert impressed the tribes in the neighborhood and they joined Ali in the war against Muawiyah.
After crossing the desert, Ali and his troops pushed on Al-Raqqa on the left bank of the Euphrates, here they had to cross the river. They asked the people of Al-Raqqa to provide them boats and build a bridge of boats for them. The people of Al Raqqa said that in the war between the Muslim people they would remain neutral and as such they could not construct the bridge for them. Thereupon Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali challenged the people of Al-Raqqa that unless they provided the necessary boats and constructed the bridge for them, he would declare war against them, and order their massacre. The people of Al-Raqqa consulted among themselves and ultimately agreed to construct the bridge of boats for the army of Ali to cross the river.
After crossing the river, the troops of Ali advanced along the right bank of the river in the direction of Aleppo. Here they came across the Syrian vanguard. The Syrians did not risk a skirmish with the forces of Ali and withdrew precipitately.
At Sur-Rum, along the borders of Syria, the Ali forces had a skirmish with the Syrian guards. The Syrians suffered defeat and retreated. Thereafter the forces of Ali reached the plain of Siffin, where they found the Syrian forces under Muawiyah drawn up in strength and waiting for them.
As the troops of Ali arrived in the valley of Siffin, it was found that the forces of Muawiyah had already occupied the best part of the valley. There was only one source of water supply in the valley, and Muawiyah had so arrayed his forces that they controlled the water supply of the whole valley, and the troops of Ali had no access to water at any place. The strategy of Muawiyah obviously was to force a defeat on Ali by exposing his troops to the rigors of thirst.
The first task of Ali was to gain an access to the source of water supply. Ali sent a letter to Muawiyah through a delegation. Ali pointed out to Muawiyah that according to the injunctions of Islam as well as according to the rules of warfare, access to water supply could not be denied to the combatants. Ali observed that any armed conflict between the two rides would lead to great loss of life on both the sides. He was therefore keen that the disputes between the two sides should be decided through peaceful negotiations. He added that he was not going to lead an attack unless all possibilities of peace had been exhausted. He brought home the point that in this context it was necessary that both the sides should have equal opportunities of access to water, and the area around the source of water supply should be declared a neutral zone. On receiving the letter of Ali, Muawiyah called his council of war. Amr bin Al Aas the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Muawiyah observed that according to the rules of warfare access to water had to be provided to the combatants from both the sides. He suggested that while maintaining over all control over the source of water supply they should allow the men of the forces of Ali to obtain water for their needs at specified hours subject to terms which might be mutually agreed upon.
Abdullah bin Abi Sirah, a former Governor of Egypt, and a foster brother of Othman suggested that they should adopt the tactics of delay by neither providing access to the water supply to the other side, nor refusing to do so. He was of the view that because of such delay the forces of Ali would have no option but to retreat from the valley, and when they were on a retreat they could be attacked in the rear.
Some counselors of Muawiyah held that they were seeking vengeance for the blood of Othman. The rebels had denied access to water to Othman. It was accordingly necessary that those who had subjected Othman to the rigors of thirst should likewise be subjected to the suffering. Muawiyah gave an evasive reply to the delegation that he had received from Ali. He did not refuse the demand outright, but did not accept it either. His game was to play for time. In the meantime, he sent reinforcements for his troops that guarded the source of water supply.
When the delegation of Ali returned from Muawiyah, Ali called for his own council of war. After deliberations it was decided that an immediate attack should be made to gain control of the source of water supply. In the action that followed there was hard fighting with lances and swords. Some persons were killed from both the sides, but ultimately the forces of Ali had the upper hand, and they dislodged the Syrians from all the points commanding access to the source of water supply.
Now the position was reversed, and Muawiyah had to approach Ali to allow the Syrians access to the source of water supply. Some of the counselors of Ali advised him to pay the Syrians in their own coin, and to refuse them access to the source of water supply. Ali overruled them saying that Islam did not permit them to stop the supply of water to their enemy. He said that he had to be guided by the Book of God, and he could not act in the way the people acted during the Age of Ignorance. While the troops of Ali maintained the over all control of the source of water supply, the troops of Muawiyah were allowed to have the water they needed at specified hours. During such hours men from both the sides came in contact, and the general feeling was that instead of resorting to an armed conflict, the disputes between the two sides should be settled through peaceful means.
The armies that lay in camp at Siffin facing each other were the largest armies so far assembled in the history of Islam. The irony was that such large armies had not been assembled to fight against the non-Muslims in the name of God. The misfortune was that the Muslims were arrayed to fight against the Muslims and each side claimed that it had taken the field for cause. Nevertheless both the sides wished to gain the end they had in view without an armed conflict. Ali instructed his men that they should not fire the first shot. Muawiyah likewise hesitated to take the initiative in beginning the war. With such large concentration of troops at one place, absolute peace was out of question. Isolated skirmishes took place every now and then leading to loss of life on both the sides. There was however no direct clash between the armies as a whole. For over two months the armies as whole remained quiet and in a state of suspense being officially neither at war, nor at peace. Then came the month of Moharrum and during this month the hostilities were officially suspended.During these months peace, overtures were made, and peace missions were exchanged between the two sides almost everyday. The missions that were sent by Ali to Muawiyah tried to make out the point that Muawiyah should fear God, and refrain from creating dissentions among the Muslims. He was told that as Ali had been elected as the Caliph, it was his bounden duty to owe allegiance to him. It was also pointed out that in view of his learning, piety, relationship with the Holy Prophet, services to Islam, and other extraordinary qualities of head and heart, he was the most suitable person to be the Caliph of the Muslims. The stand of Muawiyah was that the election of Ali was irregular as it had been held under the pressure of the rebels. He accused Ali of involvement in the murder of Othman. He observed that he was the cousin of Othman, and according to the injunctions of Islam it was incumbent on him to seek "Qasas" for the murder of Othman.
To the charges of Muawiyah, the emissaries of Ali maintained that the election of Ali had been elected by all the citizens of Madina. All previous regular elections of the Caliphs had been held by the people of Madina, and in the case of the election of Ali the electorate was the same. The rebels did not exercise pressure on the people of Madina to elect a particular person; their pressure was only to the extent that they should elect some person as the Caliph. The claims of all the eligible candidates were duly considered, and by general consensus, Ali was superior to all of them. In fact all other candidates had withdrawn their claims. If any, Muawiyah's contention was that Ali's election was vitiated because of his involvement in the murder of Othman. The emissaries of Ali observed that this accusation was false. Ali was neither directly nor indirectly involved in the assassination of Othman. As a matter of fact, Ali had tried his best to support Othman. They emphatically pointed out that to levy such a charge on a person of the caliber of Ali was sheer sacrilege. Muawiyah maintained that if Ali had supported Othman sincerely, the tragedy would have been avoided. The emissaries of Ali posed the question: You were entrenched in power in Syria, and you had an army at your disposal. You were fully aware of the difficulties of the situation. Why did you not take proper steps to defend Othman." Muawiyah had no satisfactory reply to this question. The emissaries of Ali thereafter posed another question: "During the last days of the siege of his home, Othman had asked the provincial governors including yourself to send him aid against the rebels. Why did you and the provincial governors not send the aid. Are you then not indirectly responsible for the assassination of Othman." Muawiyah had no answer to this question as well and that led to the exchange of hot and bitter words between Muawiyah and the emissaries of Ali.
The emissaries of Ali asked a further question: You say that if Ali had supported Othman the tragedy would have been avoided. Did Ali have any force at his disposal. If you who had a large army at your disposal could not avert the tragedy, how could Ali who had no force at his disposal avert the tragedy." Muawiyah said that if Ali was not involved in the murder of Othman he should hand over these murderers to him. The missions sent by Ali pointed out that the proper way to ask for Qasas was that he should offer the oath of allegiance to Ali and thereafter file a claim for Qasas before him. The delegates brought home to Muawiyah the fallacy in his stand. If his demand for Qasas was genuine he should have strengthened the hands of Ali to enable him bring the murderers of Othman to book. By rebelling against the authority of Ali he had enabled the murderers of Othman seek an alliance with Ali. In such circumstances it was impossible for Ali to take action against the persons who were his allies. It was pointed out with great force that the responsibility for complicating the state of affairs devolved on Muawiyah and not on Ali, who would have himself avenged the murder of Othman if difficulties had not been created in his way.
Muawiyah suggested that a way out of the difficulty was that he should be recognized as the Caliph of Syria while Ali could continue as the Caliph of the rest of the Muslim world. Ali did not agree to this proposal as this was regarded to be repugnant to the spirit of Islam. Ali also pointed out that this proposal on the part of Muawiyah had let the cat out of the bag and betrayed his real intention. That provided a conclusive proof to the effect that the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext to capture power.
Ali sent a message to Muawiyah that if all this fuss was about the caliphate between himself and Muawiyah, why create dissentions among the Muslims and shed the blood of innocent persons? In the usual Arab way, Ali proposed a duel with Muawiyah. It was pointed out that in that way whosoever survived would be the Caliph. Amr b Al Aas advised Muawiyah that the proposal of Ali should be accepted. Muawiyah hesitated to accept the proposal for he knew that Ali had so far fought hundreds of duels, and in all such duels his adversaries had been killed. Amr bin Al Aas pointed out that such was the case many years ago. With the lapse of time, Ali had grown fat and unwieldy and in any personal combat he was apt to lose the balance and be overpowered. Muawiyah, however, could not make up his mind to take the risk of a personal combat with Ali and he refused the offer. Thereafter all negotiations for peace broke down and both the sides began to prepare for war.
Battle of Siffin
When the sacred month of Moharrum was over, and the possibilities of any settlement through peaceful means had receded, war between the two sides became imminent. Still hoping against hope, war on a full fledged scale was avoided, and hostilities began on a limited scale. A detachment from each side was led to fight each day. The battle waged for the whole day and the two detachments retired to their respective camps at nightfall. The following day other detachments took the field, and after a day long combat they retired to their camps when the night set. This process continued for a week. Losses of life occurred on both the sides, but these contests were more like tournaments than battles. After a week the patience of both the sides was exhausted, and the entire armies from both the sides took the field for a headlong clash.
The main battle began on the 8th of Safar 37 A.H. crossponding to 26 July 657. Historian Yaqubi wrote that Ali had 80,000 men, including 70 Companions who participated in Badr, 70 Companions who took oath at Hudaibia, and 400 prominent Ansars and Muhajirs ; while Muawiya had 120,000 Syrians.
The heralds from the army of Ali stepped forward, and shouted to the army of Muawiyah to accept the truth and acknowledge the caliphate of Ali. The heralds from the army of Muawiyah shouted, "We seek vengeance for the blood of Othman. Hand us his murderers if you are in the truth". These calls proved ineffective, and the two armies arrayed themselves for action.
The army of Ali was divided into the three usual wings, the right wing, the left wing and the central wing. The central wing was commanded by Ali himself and this wing comprised some veteran companions of Madina. One wing comprised contingents from Kufa, and the other wing comprised contingents from Basra. The cavalry of the Kufa wing was led by Malik Ashtar while the infantry of this wing was led by Umar bin Yasir. The cavalry of the Basra wing was led by Sahl bin Hanif, while its infantry was led by Qais bin Sa'ad.
Before the war began Ali addressed his army. He said that they were fighting in the cause of God, and the vindication of the truth. He exhorted his men to prove their worth by performing prodigies of valor. If they survived they would be Ghazis and if they fell, paradise would await them. He asked his men not to fire the first shot. The enemy should take the initiative, but when the war began they should not rest content till they had defeated the enemy. The men were enjoined not to turn their backs. They were exhorted to play the role of heroes. They were instructed not to attack any wounded person; not to cut the limbs of dead person; not to molest women; not to kill the aged and the children; and not to plunder. They were asked to be steadfast, talk less and fear God.
Before the beginning of the battle proper, according to the usual Arab practice the challenge to personal duel was given, Ali gave the challenge for personal combat with Muawiyah. Muawiyah did not accept the challenge. Then Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali stepped forward, and gave a challenge for a personal duel with Amr bin Al-Aas the Commander-in-chief of the forces of Muawiyah, Amr bin Al-Aas did not accept the challenge. After the refusal of Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas to accept the challenge of personal combat, the two armies drawn out in battle array fought for the whole day, but neither side get the better of the other. The following day the combat was removed with greater vigor. Ali was in the center of his army with the flower of troops from Madina. Muawiyah had a pavilion pitched in the battlefield and there surrounded by his bodyguard. He watched the course of the battle. Amr bin Al-Aas with a great weight of horse charged the Kufa wing of the forces of Ali which gave way and exposed Ali to imminent peril. Ali and the men of the central wing fought bravely and repulsed the charge. Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali then led a charge against Muawiyah. The pavilion of Muawiyah was surrounded by five columns of body guards ranged one after the other. Four of these five ranks were cut to pieces by Ashtar and his men. At this stage Muawiyah contemplated fight. Amr bin Al-Aas rushed to his side, and advised him not to lose heart. He said "Courage to day, victory tomorrow". With great effort, the forces of Muawiyah beat back the attack and thereafter the two forces fought on equal terms. Feats of bravery were performed by men from both the sides leading to heavy blood shed.
On the third day the battle began again with unprecedented vigor. The Syrians pressed against the ranks of the forces of Ali, but Ashtar drove them back with a good deal of slaughter. Then Ammaar bin Yasir with his contingent dashed forward from the ranks of the forces of Ali and attacked the forces of Muawiyah with the ferocity of a lion. He penetrated deep into the ranks of the enemy causing great havoc. Bent on seeking martyrdom Ammaar fell after he had broken the ranks of the enemy. Amaar was a distinguished companion of the Holy Prophet. In the time of Umar he was the Governor of Kufa. He developed some differences with Othman. When Ali became the Caliph, Ammaar was his ardent supporter. He fought on the side of Ali in the Battle of the Camel. About him the Holy Prophet had prophesied that he would be killed by a group of godless and rebellious people. Ammaar was ninety years old at the time of his martyrdom. When the people came to know of the martyrdom of Ammaar and recalled the prophecy of the Holy Prophet it demoralized the troops of Muawiyah. Muawiyah tried to keep up the morale of his people by saying that the responsibility for his death lay with Ali who had brought him to fight in spite of his old ago. The death of Ammaar was a great personal loss for Ali and he felt as if one of his hands had been cut off.
The following day the war was continued causing a good deal of slaughter. As the day wore on, the position of the army of Muawiyah began worsening. Their supply of arrows was exhausted, and they began pelting the forces of Ali with stones. The Syrians next look to javelins and lances. Finally they fell on the troops of Ali with swords. The battle continued during the night as well. In the nocturnal battle Ali played the role of a hero. He stood firm as a rock, and beat back the attacks of the Syrians killing according to chronicles as many as five hundred persons with his ponderous two edged sword.
In the actions so far fought, the forces of Ali had the upper hand, and the final collapse of the Syrians was well in sight. In order to avert their defeat the Syrians now resorted to a ruse. The next day when the battle began again, the Syrians hung the leaves from the Holy Quran on their lances and raised the cry, "O ye men of Iraq, should you kill us what would become of our families and should we slay you what would become of your wives and children. Let us stop this sad warfare, and resort to the decision of the Book of God.
As soon as the men of Iraq heard the appeal of the Syrians, they threw down their arms, and echoed the cry, "Let the Book of God decide between us". Ali expostulated with his men saying that this was a nefarious device of Muawiyah to cloak his defeat. Ali warned his men not to fall into the trap, but to fight to the finish. This had no appeal for the men of Iraq. They argued that since they were fighting for the sake of God they could not refuse arbitration based on the Book of God. Ali said that of all the people in the world he would be the first to accept the decision of the Book of God, but he knew full well that neither Muawiyah nor the people around him had any knowledge of the Quran or the injunctions of Islam. They were merely exploiting the Book of God for an ulterior purpose, and it was necessary that they should be frustrated in their object. Ali exhorted the people of Iraq to continue the fighting till they were victorious.
The exhortations of Ali had no effect. About 20,000 men of Iraq let by Zaid bin Hasan, and Mustur bin Fidki openly revolted and laid down their arms. The rebels approached Ali, and calling him no longer their Caliph, but simply Ali, declared "Ali you are appealing to the sword, and they are appealing to the Quran. Let the issue of the caliphate be deferred to the judgment of God's Book". They adopted a hostile attitude, and warned Ali that if he did not submit to their demand, he would meet the same fate as had befallen his predecessor, Othman.
Heartbroken at the treachery of his men, Ali exclaimed with great grief, "Alas, you are deserting me at the critical time of need. Go and join the Syrian coalition against God and His Apostle." The rebels did not rest content with their own revolt. A large section of the army under Ashtar was still fighting, and they were having an upper hand. The rebels demanded that orders should be issued recalling Ashtar from the battlefield. The rebels went to the extent of reproaching Ali. He was accused of being an accomplice in the murder of Othman. He was accused of fighting against the Syrians to quench his thirst for self-aggrandizement. Ali threatened them with grave consequences and they threatened him in turn. The pressure of the rebels increased and Ali feeling helpless had to recall Ashtar from the front. Ashtar returned reluctantly, and a fierce altercation ensued between him and the rebels. Ashtar upbraided them as traitors, hypocrites and villains. In return they reviled him. Because of this revolt in his army, Ali had to suspend action against the Syrians, and thus the victory which was in immediate sight, evaded him. Henceforward misfortune was to stalk the steps of Ali.
Ali because of the treachery of his own men was no longer the master of his own will, and he had to act in accordance with the dictates of the rebels. These rebels forced Ali to depute the rebel General Ashas bin Qais to inquire from Muawiyah as to what was the significance of the display of the leaves of the Holy Quran on their lances. Muawiyah said, "The significance of this display of the leaves of the Holy Quran on our lances is that we appeal from the decision of arms to the decision of the law of God. Let both sides retire from the battlefield, and refer the case to the arbitration of two umpires, one umpire to be nominated by each side. The two umpires should decide according to the Holy Quran and the traditions of the Holy Prophet as to whom the sovereignty should go. The decision of the umpires should be binding on all". To this proposal Ashas gave his consent without consulting Ali. Ali was wroth at the acceptance of the proposal on his behalf. Ali maintained that the issue of sovereignty was not in dispute. He was the duly elected Caliph, and his right to the caliphate could not be adjudicated upon by the arbitrators. The rebels did not accept the contention of Ali. Ali in a state of utter helplessness said, "If you are not going to listen to me, then do whatever you like."
Ash'as b Qais who accepted the proposal of Muawiyah was the chief of the Banu Kindi. He was converted to Islam during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet. After the death of the Holy Prophet he apostatized. In the apostasy wars conducted during the caliphate of Abu Bakr Ashas was defeated. He came to Madina, repented and was reconverted to Islam. Abu Bakr married his sister Umm Farida to him. During the time of Umar he participated in the wars against the Persians. Umar, however, did not trust him with any important office. Othman made him the Governor of a province. Ali deposed him. He came to Kufa and offered allegiance to Ali. Ali made him a General of his army the marched with Ali to Siffin and played an important part in dislodging the Syrians from the source of water supply in the Siffin valley. To start with he showed a great deal of loyalty to Ali, but later he came to waver in his loyalty. This was outright treachery. It appears treachery was in the very blood of Ashas. His daughter was married to Imam Hasan. She poisoned Imam Hasan at the instigation of Yazid, who promised to marry her in case she poisoned Imam Hasan, but refused to marry her when she had poisoned Imam Hasan on the ground that he could not trust a woman who could poison her husband.
The accounts of what happened at Siffin which have come down to us give no clue as to what was the cause of rebellion against Ali when victory was almost in sight. It is not plausible that this sudden development took place at the display of the leaves of the Holy Quran on their lances by the Syrians. Obviously it was the culmination of some deep set conspiracy. The exact extent of such conspiracy remains a mystery, but it appears that the treachery of most of the army chiefs of Ali was because of the bribery by Muawiyah. The army that Ali had brought to Siffin was more a motley crowd than a disciplined force, and this lack of discipline was its greatest weakness. It also appears that there was a good deal of jealousy among the Generals of the army of Ali. When Ali appointed Ashas as a General his appointment was opposed by Malik Ashtar who was the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali, and these differences between the two Generals persisted during the course of the war. Ali believed in the truth of his cause to such an extent that he did not sponsor any propaganda to support such cause. On the other hand Muawiyah was a past master in making propaganda, and in this respect he outwitted Ali.
When the arbitration deed came to be written up, an altercation between the parties began over the first sentence of the preamble about the title of the parties. The supporters of Ali insisted that he should be referred to as "Ali, the commander of the Faithful". The other party objected to such title as they did not recognize him as the Caliph. The army chiefs of Ali who had rebelled against the authority of Ali overruled the view of the supporters of Ali on the ground that in the case of the Hudaibia pact when the Quraish objected to reference to Muhammad as the prophet. The Holy Prophet agreed to the omission of such reference. The agreement that was drawn up provided for the truce between parties, and the settlement of the dispute through arbitration of two umpires, one empire to be appointed by each party. The umpires were required to give their decision in accordance with the injunctions of the Holy Quran. In the absence of any guidance from the Holy Quran, the traditions of the Holy Prophet were to be followed. The umpires were guaranteed the security of their life and property and of their families whatever the outcome of the arbitration might be. It was provided that the decision of the umpires was to be binding on all concerned. The umpires were required to give their decision within six months. They were required to meet at a neutral spot midway between Kufa and Damascus. The point to be determined by the umpires was as to whom out of Ali and Muawiyah the sovereignty was to belong. The supporters of Ali pointed out that the issue of sovereignty was not the point in dispute, the dispute was about the "Qasas" of the assassination of Othman. The rebels against the authority of Ali overruled this stand. They said that the real issue was that of the caliphate between Ali and Muawiyah, and if this issue was decided the question of "Qasas" for the murder of Othman would be automatically decided. The arbitration deed as it was finally drawn up was nothing short of a death warrant for Ali. He had however become so helpless that he had to agree to it.
After the arbitration deed had been drawn up, the arbiter to represent Ali had to be appointed. Ali wanted that his cousin Abdullah bin Abbas be appointed as the arbiter. The rebels said that they could not accept this nomination as Abdullah bin Abbas was related to him and he was apt to be partial. Ali said that in that case let Malik Ashtar be appointed as the arbiter. The rebels vetoed this suggestion as well on the ground that Malik Ashtar had participated in the war and could not take an impartial view. The rebels said that they would nominate Abu Musa Ashari a former Governor of Kufa in this behalf. Ali pointed out that he had no confidence in Abu Musa Ashari as he had deposed him from the governorship of Kufa. The rebels said that Abu Musa Ashari was known for his neutrality, and they could not agree to the nomination of any person other than Abu Musa Ashari as the arbiter. So helpless had Ali become that he had to give way on this point as well and Abu Musa Ashari was appointed as the umpire to represent Ali when Ali had no confidence in him. On the side of Muawiyah, Amr bin Al-Aas was appointed as the arbiter and no one objected that he had participated in the war and had developed certain prejudices.
The main battle began on the 8th of Safar 37 A.H. crossponding to 26 July 657. Historian Yaqubi wrote that Ali had 80,000 men, including 70 Companions who participated in Badr, 70 Companions who took oath at Hudaibia, and 400 prominent Ansars and Muhajirs ; while Muawiya had 120,000 Syrians.
The heralds from the army of Ali stepped forward, and shouted to the army of Muawiyah to accept the truth and acknowledge the caliphate of Ali. The heralds from the army of Muawiyah shouted, "We seek vengeance for the blood of Othman. Hand us his murderers if you are in the truth". These calls proved ineffective, and the two armies arrayed themselves for action.
The army of Ali was divided into the three usual wings, the right wing, the left wing and the central wing. The central wing was commanded by Ali himself and this wing comprised some veteran companions of Madina. One wing comprised contingents from Kufa, and the other wing comprised contingents from Basra. The cavalry of the Kufa wing was led by Malik Ashtar while the infantry of this wing was led by Umar bin Yasir. The cavalry of the Basra wing was led by Sahl bin Hanif, while its infantry was led by Qais bin Sa'ad.
Before the war began Ali addressed his army. He said that they were fighting in the cause of God, and the vindication of the truth. He exhorted his men to prove their worth by performing prodigies of valor. If they survived they would be Ghazis and if they fell, paradise would await them. He asked his men not to fire the first shot. The enemy should take the initiative, but when the war began they should not rest content till they had defeated the enemy. The men were enjoined not to turn their backs. They were exhorted to play the role of heroes. They were instructed not to attack any wounded person; not to cut the limbs of dead person; not to molest women; not to kill the aged and the children; and not to plunder. They were asked to be steadfast, talk less and fear God.
Before the beginning of the battle proper, according to the usual Arab practice the challenge to personal duel was given, Ali gave the challenge for personal combat with Muawiyah. Muawiyah did not accept the challenge. Then Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali stepped forward, and gave a challenge for a personal duel with Amr bin Al-Aas the Commander-in-chief of the forces of Muawiyah, Amr bin Al-Aas did not accept the challenge. After the refusal of Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas to accept the challenge of personal combat, the two armies drawn out in battle array fought for the whole day, but neither side get the better of the other. The following day the combat was removed with greater vigor. Ali was in the center of his army with the flower of troops from Madina. Muawiyah had a pavilion pitched in the battlefield and there surrounded by his bodyguard. He watched the course of the battle. Amr bin Al-Aas with a great weight of horse charged the Kufa wing of the forces of Ali which gave way and exposed Ali to imminent peril. Ali and the men of the central wing fought bravely and repulsed the charge. Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali then led a charge against Muawiyah. The pavilion of Muawiyah was surrounded by five columns of body guards ranged one after the other. Four of these five ranks were cut to pieces by Ashtar and his men. At this stage Muawiyah contemplated fight. Amr bin Al-Aas rushed to his side, and advised him not to lose heart. He said "Courage to day, victory tomorrow". With great effort, the forces of Muawiyah beat back the attack and thereafter the two forces fought on equal terms. Feats of bravery were performed by men from both the sides leading to heavy blood shed.
On the third day the battle began again with unprecedented vigor. The Syrians pressed against the ranks of the forces of Ali, but Ashtar drove them back with a good deal of slaughter. Then Ammaar bin Yasir with his contingent dashed forward from the ranks of the forces of Ali and attacked the forces of Muawiyah with the ferocity of a lion. He penetrated deep into the ranks of the enemy causing great havoc. Bent on seeking martyrdom Ammaar fell after he had broken the ranks of the enemy. Amaar was a distinguished companion of the Holy Prophet. In the time of Umar he was the Governor of Kufa. He developed some differences with Othman. When Ali became the Caliph, Ammaar was his ardent supporter. He fought on the side of Ali in the Battle of the Camel. About him the Holy Prophet had prophesied that he would be killed by a group of godless and rebellious people. Ammaar was ninety years old at the time of his martyrdom. When the people came to know of the martyrdom of Ammaar and recalled the prophecy of the Holy Prophet it demoralized the troops of Muawiyah. Muawiyah tried to keep up the morale of his people by saying that the responsibility for his death lay with Ali who had brought him to fight in spite of his old ago. The death of Ammaar was a great personal loss for Ali and he felt as if one of his hands had been cut off.
The following day the war was continued causing a good deal of slaughter. As the day wore on, the position of the army of Muawiyah began worsening. Their supply of arrows was exhausted, and they began pelting the forces of Ali with stones. The Syrians next look to javelins and lances. Finally they fell on the troops of Ali with swords. The battle continued during the night as well. In the nocturnal battle Ali played the role of a hero. He stood firm as a rock, and beat back the attacks of the Syrians killing according to chronicles as many as five hundred persons with his ponderous two edged sword.
In the actions so far fought, the forces of Ali had the upper hand, and the final collapse of the Syrians was well in sight. In order to avert their defeat the Syrians now resorted to a ruse. The next day when the battle began again, the Syrians hung the leaves from the Holy Quran on their lances and raised the cry, "O ye men of Iraq, should you kill us what would become of our families and should we slay you what would become of your wives and children. Let us stop this sad warfare, and resort to the decision of the Book of God.
As soon as the men of Iraq heard the appeal of the Syrians, they threw down their arms, and echoed the cry, "Let the Book of God decide between us". Ali expostulated with his men saying that this was a nefarious device of Muawiyah to cloak his defeat. Ali warned his men not to fall into the trap, but to fight to the finish. This had no appeal for the men of Iraq. They argued that since they were fighting for the sake of God they could not refuse arbitration based on the Book of God. Ali said that of all the people in the world he would be the first to accept the decision of the Book of God, but he knew full well that neither Muawiyah nor the people around him had any knowledge of the Quran or the injunctions of Islam. They were merely exploiting the Book of God for an ulterior purpose, and it was necessary that they should be frustrated in their object. Ali exhorted the people of Iraq to continue the fighting till they were victorious.
The exhortations of Ali had no effect. About 20,000 men of Iraq let by Zaid bin Hasan, and Mustur bin Fidki openly revolted and laid down their arms. The rebels approached Ali, and calling him no longer their Caliph, but simply Ali, declared "Ali you are appealing to the sword, and they are appealing to the Quran. Let the issue of the caliphate be deferred to the judgment of God's Book". They adopted a hostile attitude, and warned Ali that if he did not submit to their demand, he would meet the same fate as had befallen his predecessor, Othman.
Heartbroken at the treachery of his men, Ali exclaimed with great grief, "Alas, you are deserting me at the critical time of need. Go and join the Syrian coalition against God and His Apostle." The rebels did not rest content with their own revolt. A large section of the army under Ashtar was still fighting, and they were having an upper hand. The rebels demanded that orders should be issued recalling Ashtar from the battlefield. The rebels went to the extent of reproaching Ali. He was accused of being an accomplice in the murder of Othman. He was accused of fighting against the Syrians to quench his thirst for self-aggrandizement. Ali threatened them with grave consequences and they threatened him in turn. The pressure of the rebels increased and Ali feeling helpless had to recall Ashtar from the front. Ashtar returned reluctantly, and a fierce altercation ensued between him and the rebels. Ashtar upbraided them as traitors, hypocrites and villains. In return they reviled him. Because of this revolt in his army, Ali had to suspend action against the Syrians, and thus the victory which was in immediate sight, evaded him. Henceforward misfortune was to stalk the steps of Ali.
Ali because of the treachery of his own men was no longer the master of his own will, and he had to act in accordance with the dictates of the rebels. These rebels forced Ali to depute the rebel General Ashas bin Qais to inquire from Muawiyah as to what was the significance of the display of the leaves of the Holy Quran on their lances. Muawiyah said, "The significance of this display of the leaves of the Holy Quran on our lances is that we appeal from the decision of arms to the decision of the law of God. Let both sides retire from the battlefield, and refer the case to the arbitration of two umpires, one umpire to be nominated by each side. The two umpires should decide according to the Holy Quran and the traditions of the Holy Prophet as to whom the sovereignty should go. The decision of the umpires should be binding on all". To this proposal Ashas gave his consent without consulting Ali. Ali was wroth at the acceptance of the proposal on his behalf. Ali maintained that the issue of sovereignty was not in dispute. He was the duly elected Caliph, and his right to the caliphate could not be adjudicated upon by the arbitrators. The rebels did not accept the contention of Ali. Ali in a state of utter helplessness said, "If you are not going to listen to me, then do whatever you like."
Ash'as b Qais who accepted the proposal of Muawiyah was the chief of the Banu Kindi. He was converted to Islam during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet. After the death of the Holy Prophet he apostatized. In the apostasy wars conducted during the caliphate of Abu Bakr Ashas was defeated. He came to Madina, repented and was reconverted to Islam. Abu Bakr married his sister Umm Farida to him. During the time of Umar he participated in the wars against the Persians. Umar, however, did not trust him with any important office. Othman made him the Governor of a province. Ali deposed him. He came to Kufa and offered allegiance to Ali. Ali made him a General of his army the marched with Ali to Siffin and played an important part in dislodging the Syrians from the source of water supply in the Siffin valley. To start with he showed a great deal of loyalty to Ali, but later he came to waver in his loyalty. This was outright treachery. It appears treachery was in the very blood of Ashas. His daughter was married to Imam Hasan. She poisoned Imam Hasan at the instigation of Yazid, who promised to marry her in case she poisoned Imam Hasan, but refused to marry her when she had poisoned Imam Hasan on the ground that he could not trust a woman who could poison her husband.
The accounts of what happened at Siffin which have come down to us give no clue as to what was the cause of rebellion against Ali when victory was almost in sight. It is not plausible that this sudden development took place at the display of the leaves of the Holy Quran on their lances by the Syrians. Obviously it was the culmination of some deep set conspiracy. The exact extent of such conspiracy remains a mystery, but it appears that the treachery of most of the army chiefs of Ali was because of the bribery by Muawiyah. The army that Ali had brought to Siffin was more a motley crowd than a disciplined force, and this lack of discipline was its greatest weakness. It also appears that there was a good deal of jealousy among the Generals of the army of Ali. When Ali appointed Ashas as a General his appointment was opposed by Malik Ashtar who was the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali, and these differences between the two Generals persisted during the course of the war. Ali believed in the truth of his cause to such an extent that he did not sponsor any propaganda to support such cause. On the other hand Muawiyah was a past master in making propaganda, and in this respect he outwitted Ali.
When the arbitration deed came to be written up, an altercation between the parties began over the first sentence of the preamble about the title of the parties. The supporters of Ali insisted that he should be referred to as "Ali, the commander of the Faithful". The other party objected to such title as they did not recognize him as the Caliph. The army chiefs of Ali who had rebelled against the authority of Ali overruled the view of the supporters of Ali on the ground that in the case of the Hudaibia pact when the Quraish objected to reference to Muhammad as the prophet. The Holy Prophet agreed to the omission of such reference. The agreement that was drawn up provided for the truce between parties, and the settlement of the dispute through arbitration of two umpires, one empire to be appointed by each party. The umpires were required to give their decision in accordance with the injunctions of the Holy Quran. In the absence of any guidance from the Holy Quran, the traditions of the Holy Prophet were to be followed. The umpires were guaranteed the security of their life and property and of their families whatever the outcome of the arbitration might be. It was provided that the decision of the umpires was to be binding on all concerned. The umpires were required to give their decision within six months. They were required to meet at a neutral spot midway between Kufa and Damascus. The point to be determined by the umpires was as to whom out of Ali and Muawiyah the sovereignty was to belong. The supporters of Ali pointed out that the issue of sovereignty was not the point in dispute, the dispute was about the "Qasas" of the assassination of Othman. The rebels against the authority of Ali overruled this stand. They said that the real issue was that of the caliphate between Ali and Muawiyah, and if this issue was decided the question of "Qasas" for the murder of Othman would be automatically decided. The arbitration deed as it was finally drawn up was nothing short of a death warrant for Ali. He had however become so helpless that he had to agree to it.
After the arbitration deed had been drawn up, the arbiter to represent Ali had to be appointed. Ali wanted that his cousin Abdullah bin Abbas be appointed as the arbiter. The rebels said that they could not accept this nomination as Abdullah bin Abbas was related to him and he was apt to be partial. Ali said that in that case let Malik Ashtar be appointed as the arbiter. The rebels vetoed this suggestion as well on the ground that Malik Ashtar had participated in the war and could not take an impartial view. The rebels said that they would nominate Abu Musa Ashari a former Governor of Kufa in this behalf. Ali pointed out that he had no confidence in Abu Musa Ashari as he had deposed him from the governorship of Kufa. The rebels said that Abu Musa Ashari was known for his neutrality, and they could not agree to the nomination of any person other than Abu Musa Ashari as the arbiter. So helpless had Ali become that he had to give way on this point as well and Abu Musa Ashari was appointed as the umpire to represent Ali when Ali had no confidence in him. On the side of Muawiyah, Amr bin Al-Aas was appointed as the arbiter and no one objected that he had participated in the war and had developed certain prejudices.
The Khawarij
After the execution of the arbitration agreement the forces of both the sides had to withdraw from the battlefield. Although the arbitration agreement had been forced on him Ali, as an honorable man found himself bound by the agreement. He accordingly ordered a return march for his forces. Ali left the battlefield of Siffin with a heavy heart. Victory had eluded him because of the treachery of his own men. He had been betrayed. Heavy casualties had taken place from both the sides and he mourned at the death of so many Muslims. He had lost some of his best supporters like Ammaar bin Yasir, and this vacuum could not be filled. He felt distressed that the Muslim Ummah had lost its unity. A generation after the death of the Holy Prophet, the people wore losing their Islamic character and were once again relapsing into the evils of the Age of Ignorance. It was heartrending for him to see that truth was being suppressed, and falsehood was getting the upper hand. It appeared to him that by subjecting him and the Muslims to such ordeals, God intended the Muslims to be put to test. Ali bowed his head to the will of God, and prayed to the Almighty to grant him the patience and the courage to face the difficulties that beset his patio. The return march was made by the shortest road on the right bank of the Euphrates. The troops that had marched to the battlefield fired with the urge to fight for the vindication of the truth were now a frustrated and disappointed people who were returning to their homes after losing much and gaining little. For such failure they reproached and accused one another when the truce was called. They had heaved a sigh of relief at the cessation of hostilities. On the way back when they reflected on the course of events which they had themselves precipitated they came to have second thoughts. It came to dawn on them that they were the victims of misfortune for which they themselves were to blame.
Back in Kufa, Ali found the city plunged in gloom and grief. Almost from every house in the city rose the shrieks of women mourning the deaths of their dear ones who had fallen in the Battle of Siffin. There was a sense of general discontentment with the people that the sacrifices that they had made had gone in vain, and the campaign to Syria undertaken at a heavy cost had proved to be an exercise in futility. The general state of administration had fallen at a low ebb. Government was faced with acute financial difficulties. The law and order position became unsatisfactory. Ali had to strive hard to restore some semblance of order. He sympathized with the families who had lost their men in the battle and assured them that such deaths would be avenged. In his sermons to the congregation in the principal mosque of the city, he exhorted the people to hold fast to the rope of God, cultivate the values of Islam, remain united among themselves, and pray to God for their ultimate victory. He took the people into confidence, and narrated at length how he had been betrayed at the Battle of Siffin. He calmed the feelings of the people, and sought their cooperation in another bid to avenge the truth.
The Battle of Siffin led to the birth of the first sect among the Muslims which came to be known as the Kharjites. The term literally means separatists, seceder or outgoers. The term is based on a verse of the Holy Quran (4:101) which refers to those who leave their homes among the unbelievers. They also called themselves as the Shurat, i. e. those who sell their lives and property in return for paradise. The movement had its origin among the tribes of Banu Tamim, Banu Bakr, and Banu Hamdan. These people had participated in the revolt against Othman, and were involved in his murder. When Muawiyah raised the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman, they allied themselves with Ali. They fought on his side in the Battle of the Camel. When Ali led his forces to Syria, these people formed an important component of the army of Ali.
As the Battle of Siffin dragged on without leading to any tangible results these people got wearied of the war. They felt that the war was in reality a struggle for power between Ali and Muawiyah. These people could boast of deep-rooted traditions of democracy, and a struggle for power was repugnant to their way of life. They accordingly came to maintain that it was not advisable for them to be a pawn in the game of king malting. When the troops of Muawiyah displayed the leaves of the Holy Quran on their lances and appealed for decision to the Holy Quran instead of arms, these people responded to the call, and forced Ali to suspend hostilities, although victory for his forces was well in sight.
Thus these people though allied with Ali directly promoted the cause of Muawiyah although he was after their blood because of their involvement in the murder of Othman. Muawiyah was shrewd enough to appreciate their gesture, and in the arbitration agreement that was subsequently drawn up there was no reference to the murder of Othman. The point of dispute to be referred for arbitration was, as to out of Ali and Muawiyah, to whom the sovereignty was to belong. On the return march, these people had second thoughts on the matter. They felt that they had committed a sin in accepting the cease fire. They became critical of the appointment of umpires. They were emphatically of the view that the view that the decision of God alone should be sought for, and it was a sin to vest the decision in the matter in human beings. They blamed Ali for his acceptance of the proposal for the appointment of umpires.
In order to support their stand, they worked out religious dogmas of their fundamental principle was 'La Hukma illa lillah" - no decision except the decision of God. They maintained that they stood for the establishment of the kingdom of God and not of men on the earth. As God was not to rule in person, some Amir had to be appointed, but such Amir was bound to follow strictly the commands of God as revealed in the Holy Quran. The Amir could hold office as long as he observed the commands of God. When there was any dereliction on his part, he was liable to be killed. They acknowledged that they were involved in the assassination of Othman, but they justified this act on the ground that Othman had acted against the commands of God. They held that when any person committed a sin he became a Kafir, and it was necessary for him to offer repentance for re-entry in the fold of Islam. They had committed a sin in accepting the cease fire. They repented publicly and sought the forgiveness of God. They held that they alone wore true believers, and all other persons who called themselves Muslims, but did not subscribe to their views were unbelievers. They maintained that they had the right to kill unbelievers. It followed that they could not live in the midst of unbelievers. On return from Siffin they did not come back to Kufa. Instead they encamped at Harura, a few miles outside Kufa. In this way these people separated from the main body of the Muslims, and came to be known as the Kharjites. Their strength was about twelve thousand. Their leaders were Shabath bin Ribi al Riahi; Abdullah bin Kauwa al Yeshkuri; Yazid bin Qais Al Harabi; and Abdullah bin Wahab al Rasibi.
As these people had formerly been the allies of Ali and had defected under some misunderstanding, Ali contacted them with a view to arriving at some conciliation with them. They criticized Ali for his acceptance of arbitration. Ali pointed out to them that he was against the acceptance of cease-fire when victory was almost in sight but he did so because of their pressure. They confessed that in putting pressure on him they had sinned, and to atone for that sin they bad offered repentance to God. They insisted that as Ali had also sinned he too should offer repentance. Ali said that he had merely made a political mistake and not committed any sin, and as such no particular act of repentance was called for. In his prayers he repented every day, and that cleared him before God. They said that it was wrong on his part to accept the verdict on human umpires instead of the decision of God. Ali pointed out that according to the agreement, the umpires were bound to give their verdict in accordance with the injunctions of Islam, and if such decision was not in accord with the commands of God as revealed in the Holy Book it could be repudiated. They demanded that Ali should lead them to the battle again to fight against the Syrians. Ali said that he agreed with them, and appreciated their offer but as he had entered into an agreement to keep peace it would not be advisable for them to take up arms for that would be against the injunction of Islam which enjoins the scrupulous observance of agreements. He assured them making God his witness that if the decision of the umpires was not in accord with the injunctions of Islam, he would lead them to war as desired by them. He observed that in the meantime they could make preparations for war, so that they should be ready to march to the battlefield as soon as there was a violation of the agreement by the other side. That apparently satisfied the Kharijites and at the instance of Ali they broke the camp at Harura and returned to their homes in Kufa.
Back in Kufa, Ali found the city plunged in gloom and grief. Almost from every house in the city rose the shrieks of women mourning the deaths of their dear ones who had fallen in the Battle of Siffin. There was a sense of general discontentment with the people that the sacrifices that they had made had gone in vain, and the campaign to Syria undertaken at a heavy cost had proved to be an exercise in futility. The general state of administration had fallen at a low ebb. Government was faced with acute financial difficulties. The law and order position became unsatisfactory. Ali had to strive hard to restore some semblance of order. He sympathized with the families who had lost their men in the battle and assured them that such deaths would be avenged. In his sermons to the congregation in the principal mosque of the city, he exhorted the people to hold fast to the rope of God, cultivate the values of Islam, remain united among themselves, and pray to God for their ultimate victory. He took the people into confidence, and narrated at length how he had been betrayed at the Battle of Siffin. He calmed the feelings of the people, and sought their cooperation in another bid to avenge the truth.
The Battle of Siffin led to the birth of the first sect among the Muslims which came to be known as the Kharjites. The term literally means separatists, seceder or outgoers. The term is based on a verse of the Holy Quran (4:101) which refers to those who leave their homes among the unbelievers. They also called themselves as the Shurat, i. e. those who sell their lives and property in return for paradise. The movement had its origin among the tribes of Banu Tamim, Banu Bakr, and Banu Hamdan. These people had participated in the revolt against Othman, and were involved in his murder. When Muawiyah raised the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman, they allied themselves with Ali. They fought on his side in the Battle of the Camel. When Ali led his forces to Syria, these people formed an important component of the army of Ali.
As the Battle of Siffin dragged on without leading to any tangible results these people got wearied of the war. They felt that the war was in reality a struggle for power between Ali and Muawiyah. These people could boast of deep-rooted traditions of democracy, and a struggle for power was repugnant to their way of life. They accordingly came to maintain that it was not advisable for them to be a pawn in the game of king malting. When the troops of Muawiyah displayed the leaves of the Holy Quran on their lances and appealed for decision to the Holy Quran instead of arms, these people responded to the call, and forced Ali to suspend hostilities, although victory for his forces was well in sight.
Thus these people though allied with Ali directly promoted the cause of Muawiyah although he was after their blood because of their involvement in the murder of Othman. Muawiyah was shrewd enough to appreciate their gesture, and in the arbitration agreement that was subsequently drawn up there was no reference to the murder of Othman. The point of dispute to be referred for arbitration was, as to out of Ali and Muawiyah, to whom the sovereignty was to belong. On the return march, these people had second thoughts on the matter. They felt that they had committed a sin in accepting the cease fire. They became critical of the appointment of umpires. They were emphatically of the view that the view that the decision of God alone should be sought for, and it was a sin to vest the decision in the matter in human beings. They blamed Ali for his acceptance of the proposal for the appointment of umpires.
In order to support their stand, they worked out religious dogmas of their fundamental principle was 'La Hukma illa lillah" - no decision except the decision of God. They maintained that they stood for the establishment of the kingdom of God and not of men on the earth. As God was not to rule in person, some Amir had to be appointed, but such Amir was bound to follow strictly the commands of God as revealed in the Holy Quran. The Amir could hold office as long as he observed the commands of God. When there was any dereliction on his part, he was liable to be killed. They acknowledged that they were involved in the assassination of Othman, but they justified this act on the ground that Othman had acted against the commands of God. They held that when any person committed a sin he became a Kafir, and it was necessary for him to offer repentance for re-entry in the fold of Islam. They had committed a sin in accepting the cease fire. They repented publicly and sought the forgiveness of God. They held that they alone wore true believers, and all other persons who called themselves Muslims, but did not subscribe to their views were unbelievers. They maintained that they had the right to kill unbelievers. It followed that they could not live in the midst of unbelievers. On return from Siffin they did not come back to Kufa. Instead they encamped at Harura, a few miles outside Kufa. In this way these people separated from the main body of the Muslims, and came to be known as the Kharjites. Their strength was about twelve thousand. Their leaders were Shabath bin Ribi al Riahi; Abdullah bin Kauwa al Yeshkuri; Yazid bin Qais Al Harabi; and Abdullah bin Wahab al Rasibi.
As these people had formerly been the allies of Ali and had defected under some misunderstanding, Ali contacted them with a view to arriving at some conciliation with them. They criticized Ali for his acceptance of arbitration. Ali pointed out to them that he was against the acceptance of cease-fire when victory was almost in sight but he did so because of their pressure. They confessed that in putting pressure on him they had sinned, and to atone for that sin they bad offered repentance to God. They insisted that as Ali had also sinned he too should offer repentance. Ali said that he had merely made a political mistake and not committed any sin, and as such no particular act of repentance was called for. In his prayers he repented every day, and that cleared him before God. They said that it was wrong on his part to accept the verdict on human umpires instead of the decision of God. Ali pointed out that according to the agreement, the umpires were bound to give their verdict in accordance with the injunctions of Islam, and if such decision was not in accord with the commands of God as revealed in the Holy Book it could be repudiated. They demanded that Ali should lead them to the battle again to fight against the Syrians. Ali said that he agreed with them, and appreciated their offer but as he had entered into an agreement to keep peace it would not be advisable for them to take up arms for that would be against the injunction of Islam which enjoins the scrupulous observance of agreements. He assured them making God his witness that if the decision of the umpires was not in accord with the injunctions of Islam, he would lead them to war as desired by them. He observed that in the meantime they could make preparations for war, so that they should be ready to march to the battlefield as soon as there was a violation of the agreement by the other side. That apparently satisfied the Kharijites and at the instance of Ali they broke the camp at Harura and returned to their homes in Kufa.
The Arbitration
In pursuance of the arbitration agreement executed between Ali and Muawiyah at Siffin the two umpires Abu Musa Ashari, and Amr bin Al-Aas met at Dumatul Jandal midway between Kufa and Damascus in January 658 C E. Each side sent a retinue of four hundred persons to witness the proceedings. The retinue from Kufa was led by Abdullah bin Abbas and Shuraih b Mani. The empires invited some notable companions from Makkah and Madina who were known for their neutrality in the dispute between Ali and Muawiyah to come to Dumatul Jandal, Those who responded to the invitation included Abdullah bin Umar; Abdullah bin Zubair; Mughira bin Shuba; and Abdur Rahman bin Harith. Sa'ad b Abi Waqas was prevailed upon by his son to go to Dumatul Jandal, but he declined to do so, saying that he was not interested in the affair.
According to the accounts that have come down to us, it appears that on the appointed day the two umpires met in camera. Amr bin Al-Aas asked Abu Musa Ashari whether he held Othman to be innocent and his murder to be a crime. Abu Musa answered these questions in affirmative. Amr bin Al-Aas next asked the question whether in the circumstances the claim of Muawiyah for "Qasas" for the blood of Othman was justified. Abu Musa said that according to the injunction of the Holy Quran such claim could be made. Amr bin Al-Aas thereafter said that he objected to the Caliphate of Ali, because he was involved in the murder of Othman. Abu Musa said that this accusation was not correct, and no proof could be given to establish his involvement in the murder of Othman. Amr bin Al-Aas said that Ali had been asked to hand over the murderers of Othman to the heirs of Othman for taking "Qasas", but he had not done so. That implied his indirect if not direct involvement in the murder of Othman. Abu Musa said that the proper course for Muawiyah was to owe allegiance to Ali, and then lodge a claim for "Qasas" before him. Amr bin Al-Aas said that as the murderers of Othman were allied with Ali, the heirs of Othman could have no confidence in him in doing justice with regard to the claim for "Qasas". Amr bin Al-Aas suggested that in the circumstances proper course was that Muawiyah should be made the Caliph. Abu Musa said that in the matter of the Caliphate, Muawiyah could not claim precedence over Ali. Ali was one of the earliest converts to Islam. He was closely related to the Holy Prophet. He was the most learned man of the age. His services to Islam were well known. Amr bin Al-Aas said that though Ali was superior to others in the matters of learning and piety, Muawiyah excelled others in matters of politics and statecraft. Amr bin Al-Alas argued that the Caliph was to be the Head of the State, and was primarily concerned with affairs of the world, and in this respect Muawiyah would be a better choice. Abu Musa said that in an Islamic state the interests of the world could not be given preference over the interests of Islam and, as such Muawiyah could not be preferred to Ali in the matter of the Caliphate.
Amr bin Al-Aas suggested that if with regard to the basic issue about the "Qasas" for the blood of Othman, Ali could not be trusted because of his direct or indirect involvement in the murder of Othman, and Muawiyah was not to be preferred to Ali in the matter of the Caliphate then the obvious course was that they should consider the names of some neutral persons for the office of the Caliphate. To this course Abu Musa agreed, Abu Musa recalled the days of the glory of the Muslims during the Caliphate of Umar. He wished to have a caliph of the caliber of Umar. That made the two umpires consider the name of Abdullah bin Umar, who was present at Dumatul Jandal, was contacted, and he refused to be a candidate for the office of the Caliph, Sa'ad be Abi Waqas was a suitable candidate, but he was not willing to be considered. The claims of Abdullah bin Zubair were considered, but those were not accepted on the ground that as he had participated in the Battle of the camel be could not be considered to be neutral in the matter. Some other names were considered, but their claims were turned down on one ground or the other.
That led to a state of deadlock and the two umpires could not reach a decision. But some decision had necessarily to be taken. Thereupon Amr bin Al-Aas said, "If Ali is not acceptable to us and Muawiyah is not acceptable to you, and we have not been able to arrive at an agreement about any neutral person, then what should be the way out in your considered opinion."
Abu Musa said, "In my opinion the best course would be that we would depose both Ali and Muawiyah, and ask the community to decide the matter for themselves." Amr b Al-Aas said, "Alright, you make this announcement."Thereafter Abu Musa Ashari took the stage to announce the decision. Abdullah bin Abbas asked Abu Musa not to be the first in making the announcement. He advised him that he should let Amr bin Al-Aas speak first. Abu Musa did not pay any heed to the advice of Abdullah bin Abbas, and announced the decision that both he and Amr bin Al-Aas had agreed that Ali as well as Muawiyah should be deposed and it should be for the community to elect whomsoever they lined as the Caliph. He observed that in accordance with this decision he deposed his candidate Ali. Thereafter Amr bin Al-Aas took the stage. He said that according to the terms of the arbitration agreement the umpires had to decide as to whom out of Ali and Muawiyah the sovereignty was to belong. He observed that as the umpire representing Ali had deposed him, Muawiyah was the only candidate left in the field and as such the sovereignty belonged to him.
There is some controversy as to what actually transpired between the umpires. According to the accounts that have come down to us, it is said that both the umpires had agreed between themselves that both Ali and Muawiyah should be deposed, and that Amr bin Al-Aas went back on the agreement, and betrayed Abu Musa Ashari. This does not appear to be a correct account of what actually happened. If both the umpires had originally agreed to the deposition of both Ali and Muawiyah, and Amr bin A-Alas went back on such agreement, Abu Musa could have taken the stage and said that as 'Amr had violated his agreement with him his decision was of no effect. What appears to have happened is that when Abu Musa suggested that the matter should be referred to the community for the fresh election of the Caliph, 'Amr merely asked him to make an announcement to that effect. Abu Musa was not shrewd enough to realize the implication of such announcement. It is well known that when Abu Musa was the Governor of Kufa he had advised the people of Kufa to remain neutral in the dispute between Ali and Ayesha in spite of the fact that he had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, and was legally as well as morally bound to obey the command of Ali. Ali had to depose him. Ali had to accept nomination as an umpire under pressure. Although Ali did not have full confidence in Abu Musa, he still hoped that as Abu Musa was otherwise a pious Muslim he would act in a fair and impartial way according to the injunctions of Islam. Abu Musa was in fact so much obsessed with the idea of neutrality that he suggested the stepping aside of both Ali and Muawiyah and the election of the Caliph by the community afresh. Such suggestion was not within the four corners of the agreement according to which the umpires had to decide as to whom out of Ali and Muawiyah sovereignty was to belong. The accounts that come down to us provide that as soon Abu Musa made this suggestion, Amr bin Al-Aas jumped up and asked Abu Musa to announce that decision. Abu Musa considered that in asking him to make his announcement, Amr had agreed with him. Actually Amr had not made any agreement. He was shrewd enough to realize the implications of the suggestion of Abu Musa and wanted him to announce his suggestion. To be fair Amr did not violate any agreement with Abu Musa; he merely took advantage of the weakness in the stand of the umpire of Ali. The life story of Ali is a painful story of betrayals. To other betrayals one more betrayal was added as a consequence of the arbitration proceedings.
After the arbitration proceedings, Abu Musa did not have the courage to face Ali. He slipped away to Makkah and from there wrote a letter to Ali offering some sort of apology. Ali replied to this letter as follows: "Verily, many persons will be deprived of their rewards in the next world. They fall an easy prey to the temptations of the world, I am in a queer fix as regards the problem of the caliphate. A man stiff necked in his concede is at loggerheads with me. Surely, there is no one more anxious than me to keep the solidarity of the Muslims, because I strongly hope that God would reward me for these selfless services of mine in the cause of the unity of the Muslims. Abu Musa, you turned against the Right, and deserted me. Surely there is none more unfortunate than you, because you were deprived of your wisdom, and the faculty to act in the right way."
According to the accounts that have come down to us, it appears that on the appointed day the two umpires met in camera. Amr bin Al-Aas asked Abu Musa Ashari whether he held Othman to be innocent and his murder to be a crime. Abu Musa answered these questions in affirmative. Amr bin Al-Aas next asked the question whether in the circumstances the claim of Muawiyah for "Qasas" for the blood of Othman was justified. Abu Musa said that according to the injunction of the Holy Quran such claim could be made. Amr bin Al-Aas thereafter said that he objected to the Caliphate of Ali, because he was involved in the murder of Othman. Abu Musa said that this accusation was not correct, and no proof could be given to establish his involvement in the murder of Othman. Amr bin Al-Aas said that Ali had been asked to hand over the murderers of Othman to the heirs of Othman for taking "Qasas", but he had not done so. That implied his indirect if not direct involvement in the murder of Othman. Abu Musa said that the proper course for Muawiyah was to owe allegiance to Ali, and then lodge a claim for "Qasas" before him. Amr bin Al-Aas said that as the murderers of Othman were allied with Ali, the heirs of Othman could have no confidence in him in doing justice with regard to the claim for "Qasas". Amr bin Al-Aas suggested that in the circumstances proper course was that Muawiyah should be made the Caliph. Abu Musa said that in the matter of the Caliphate, Muawiyah could not claim precedence over Ali. Ali was one of the earliest converts to Islam. He was closely related to the Holy Prophet. He was the most learned man of the age. His services to Islam were well known. Amr bin Al-Aas said that though Ali was superior to others in the matters of learning and piety, Muawiyah excelled others in matters of politics and statecraft. Amr bin Al-Alas argued that the Caliph was to be the Head of the State, and was primarily concerned with affairs of the world, and in this respect Muawiyah would be a better choice. Abu Musa said that in an Islamic state the interests of the world could not be given preference over the interests of Islam and, as such Muawiyah could not be preferred to Ali in the matter of the Caliphate.
Amr bin Al-Aas suggested that if with regard to the basic issue about the "Qasas" for the blood of Othman, Ali could not be trusted because of his direct or indirect involvement in the murder of Othman, and Muawiyah was not to be preferred to Ali in the matter of the Caliphate then the obvious course was that they should consider the names of some neutral persons for the office of the Caliphate. To this course Abu Musa agreed, Abu Musa recalled the days of the glory of the Muslims during the Caliphate of Umar. He wished to have a caliph of the caliber of Umar. That made the two umpires consider the name of Abdullah bin Umar, who was present at Dumatul Jandal, was contacted, and he refused to be a candidate for the office of the Caliph, Sa'ad be Abi Waqas was a suitable candidate, but he was not willing to be considered. The claims of Abdullah bin Zubair were considered, but those were not accepted on the ground that as he had participated in the Battle of the camel be could not be considered to be neutral in the matter. Some other names were considered, but their claims were turned down on one ground or the other.
That led to a state of deadlock and the two umpires could not reach a decision. But some decision had necessarily to be taken. Thereupon Amr bin Al-Aas said, "If Ali is not acceptable to us and Muawiyah is not acceptable to you, and we have not been able to arrive at an agreement about any neutral person, then what should be the way out in your considered opinion."
Abu Musa said, "In my opinion the best course would be that we would depose both Ali and Muawiyah, and ask the community to decide the matter for themselves." Amr b Al-Aas said, "Alright, you make this announcement."Thereafter Abu Musa Ashari took the stage to announce the decision. Abdullah bin Abbas asked Abu Musa not to be the first in making the announcement. He advised him that he should let Amr bin Al-Aas speak first. Abu Musa did not pay any heed to the advice of Abdullah bin Abbas, and announced the decision that both he and Amr bin Al-Aas had agreed that Ali as well as Muawiyah should be deposed and it should be for the community to elect whomsoever they lined as the Caliph. He observed that in accordance with this decision he deposed his candidate Ali. Thereafter Amr bin Al-Aas took the stage. He said that according to the terms of the arbitration agreement the umpires had to decide as to whom out of Ali and Muawiyah the sovereignty was to belong. He observed that as the umpire representing Ali had deposed him, Muawiyah was the only candidate left in the field and as such the sovereignty belonged to him.
There is some controversy as to what actually transpired between the umpires. According to the accounts that have come down to us, it is said that both the umpires had agreed between themselves that both Ali and Muawiyah should be deposed, and that Amr bin Al-Aas went back on the agreement, and betrayed Abu Musa Ashari. This does not appear to be a correct account of what actually happened. If both the umpires had originally agreed to the deposition of both Ali and Muawiyah, and Amr bin A-Alas went back on such agreement, Abu Musa could have taken the stage and said that as 'Amr had violated his agreement with him his decision was of no effect. What appears to have happened is that when Abu Musa suggested that the matter should be referred to the community for the fresh election of the Caliph, 'Amr merely asked him to make an announcement to that effect. Abu Musa was not shrewd enough to realize the implication of such announcement. It is well known that when Abu Musa was the Governor of Kufa he had advised the people of Kufa to remain neutral in the dispute between Ali and Ayesha in spite of the fact that he had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, and was legally as well as morally bound to obey the command of Ali. Ali had to depose him. Ali had to accept nomination as an umpire under pressure. Although Ali did not have full confidence in Abu Musa, he still hoped that as Abu Musa was otherwise a pious Muslim he would act in a fair and impartial way according to the injunctions of Islam. Abu Musa was in fact so much obsessed with the idea of neutrality that he suggested the stepping aside of both Ali and Muawiyah and the election of the Caliph by the community afresh. Such suggestion was not within the four corners of the agreement according to which the umpires had to decide as to whom out of Ali and Muawiyah sovereignty was to belong. The accounts that come down to us provide that as soon Abu Musa made this suggestion, Amr bin Al-Aas jumped up and asked Abu Musa to announce that decision. Abu Musa considered that in asking him to make his announcement, Amr had agreed with him. Actually Amr had not made any agreement. He was shrewd enough to realize the implications of the suggestion of Abu Musa and wanted him to announce his suggestion. To be fair Amr did not violate any agreement with Abu Musa; he merely took advantage of the weakness in the stand of the umpire of Ali. The life story of Ali is a painful story of betrayals. To other betrayals one more betrayal was added as a consequence of the arbitration proceedings.
After the arbitration proceedings, Abu Musa did not have the courage to face Ali. He slipped away to Makkah and from there wrote a letter to Ali offering some sort of apology. Ali replied to this letter as follows: "Verily, many persons will be deprived of their rewards in the next world. They fall an easy prey to the temptations of the world, I am in a queer fix as regards the problem of the caliphate. A man stiff necked in his concede is at loggerheads with me. Surely, there is no one more anxious than me to keep the solidarity of the Muslims, because I strongly hope that God would reward me for these selfless services of mine in the cause of the unity of the Muslims. Abu Musa, you turned against the Right, and deserted me. Surely there is none more unfortunate than you, because you were deprived of your wisdom, and the faculty to act in the right way."
Battle of Nahrawan
The arbitration decision came as a great shock to Ali. Ali had hoped that as the umpires were to take the decision in accordance with the injunctions of the Holy Quran, they would act with a due sense of justice and fair play. The decision that was taken was neither just nor fair. It was taken in the spirit of the old Arab traditions of the age of Ignorance and was repugnant to Islamic values. The umpires were supposed to judge the relative merits of Ali and Muawiyah in the light of Islamic values and then choose one out of the two. The umpires did nothing of the sort. Abu Musa the umpire of Ali had some bias against Ali because Ali had deposed him from the governorship of Kufa, and hence wittingly or unwittingly he acted against the interests of Ali. Ali had been duly elected as the Caliph by the authorized electorate and Abu Musa had no authority to depose Ali. Amr bin Al-Alas the umpire of Muawiyah was a clever man, and taking advantage of the weakness in the stand of Abu Musa, he manipulated victory for Muawiyah. The entire arbitration proceedings thus turned out to be a farce based on betrayal and trickery. It nevertheless created an embarrassing position for Ali. The arbitration agreement had provided that the decision of the umpires was to be binding on both the parties. According to the terms of the agreement, Ali was bound to accept the decision and step aside from the office of the Caliph. Ali held the office as a trust from God and he could not betray such trust on the basis of a decision, which was arbitrary, frivolous, and capricious, and therefore no decision. Ali could not, therefore, accept the decision, and the only option loft with him was to renew the war against Muawiyah who had manipulated to win power through underhand means. Ali accordingly gave call for arms and exhorted the people to join the war for the vindication of the truth and the suppression of falsehood. The people responded enthusiastically to the call, and soon an army of 65,000 strong was assembled.
After the Battle of Siffin the Kharijites had separated from the community and camped at Harura a few miles from Kufa. Their stand was that Ali had made a mistake in accepting the arbitration of men Ali was asked by them to lead them to war against Muawiyah. Ali had tried to conciliate them, and assured of them that he would lead them to war in case the decision of the umpires was against the injunctions of Islam. Some sort of conciliation was brought about between Ali and the Kharijites, and most of the Kharijites returned to Kufa. The Kharijites were a restive and over sensitive people of the extremist type. The Kharijites slipped from Kufa one by one, established a settlement at Nahrawan, a few miles to the east of the Tigris near Madain. The Kharijites from Basra and elsewhere in Iraq also migrated to Nahrawan Here the Kharijites gathered in strength. They elected an Amir of their own. They were very meticulous in observing prayers and following other injunctions of Islam. They aspired to live sinless lives. They declared that they were not interested in the affairs of this world, and that they had sold their lives to win paradise in the next world. Where a Kharijite picked up a date under a date tree and ate it he subsequently cut his right hand himself on the ground that the eating of the date without purchasing it from the owner amounted to a theft. On the other hand when any Muslim indulged in any controversy with them, they invariably killed him. They held that no one except themselves was a Muslim, and it devolved on them to get rid of such people who did not agree with them. They let loose a reign of terror in the countryside and created a problem of law and order for the administration. When the Kharijites of Basra migrated to Nahrawan they met in the way some Muslims including Abdullah the son of an eminent companion Khabab. The Kharijites killed him as well as the woman who accompanied him.
When Ali was ready for a march to Syria he sent a message to the Kharijites asking them to join him in the march to Syria. Ali brought home to them the point that he had undertaken to lead them to war against Muawiyah after the decision of the arbitrators was known and now that he had repudiated the decision of the umpires and was leading a force to Syria they should 30 in his ranks as originally agreed upon. The Kharijites gave an insolent reply to the invitation. They said that when they had asked Ali to lead them to war he was the Caliph of the Muslims, and it was incumbent on them to support him for thereby they were to serve the cause of God. After the decision of the umpires the position had been changed. According to this decision Ali had been deposed, and power had been vested in his rival Muawiyah. In these circumstances Ali was undertaking a campaign against Muawiyah for a personal end. They observed that as the warriors of God, they were committed to fight in the cause of God alone, and not in the cause of any particular person to secure a worldly end.
Ali felt that it was futile to argue with a fanatic people like the Kharijites. He was accordingly of the view that they should march to Syria without bothering for the assistance of the Kharijites. His army men however expressed the view that when they were to be away there was the danger that the fanatic Kharijites would terrorize and murder their families. Ali was accordingly prevailed upon to deal with the menace of the Kharijites before proceeding to Syria. Ali agreed to this view and the force that was to proceed to Syria proceeded to Nahrawan instead.
Ali marched with forces to Nahrawan. Reaching Nahrawan Ali planted a standard on the ground, and declared that those who came under the standard would have amnesty and safe conduct. Some persons deserted the Kharijite camp and were allowed amnesty and safe conduct to their houses. Thereafter Ali sent a message to the Kharijite asking them that should surrender the persons who were guilty of killing Abdullah bin Khabab and other Muslims. The Kharijite refused to surrender any person, and declared that they would consider it to be a virtue to fight against Ali and his forces.
Ali marshaled his force and launched an attack against the Kharijites, with the battle cry "on to paradise," the Kharijites rushed on their troops of Ali. The Kharijites hardly numbered four thousand, while the troops Ali numbered about fifty thousand. The Kharijites fought desperately and frantically but they were outnumbered by the forces of Ali. Out of four thousand Kharijites, only two or three dozen Kharijites escaped; the rest were killed. The battle took place on the 9th Safar, 38 A.H. equilent to 659 AD.
Ali won a decisive victory at Nahrawan, but it proved to be a hollow and fatal victory, which diverted Ali from his main war against Muawiyah. After the victory of Nahrawan, Ali felt that the victory would raise the morale of his people. That was however, not to be the case. Ali wanted that from Nahrawan he should proceed direct to Syria. His army, however, desired that they should return to Kufa and thereafter proceed to Syria after taking some rest. Ali agreed with the wishes of his troops. The army returned to Kufa and went to Nukhails outside Kufa. The troops given leaves for two or three days and were commanded to return to camp thereafter in order to proceed to Syria. The men left the camp, but did not return to march to Syria. Ali addressed the people in the mosque, and exhorted them to join the camp. He reproached them for their disobedience and accused them of treachery. These exhortations, reproaches, and accusations had no effect on the people, and heart broken Ali had to abandon the campaign to Syria. When we reflect at the events that happened it appears that there was something wrong with the military organization. The troops lacked discipline, and instead of obeying orders from above, the troops indulged in giving orders. The troops betrayed Ali at Siffin and forced him to stop the war when the victory was almost in sight. At Kufa Ali was betrayed by his troops again when they refused to march to Syria. This naturally led to the advantage of Muawiyah. When he got the intelligence that Ali was planning a march to Syria he led his forces to Siffin. When Ali had to abandon the campaign to Syria, Muawiyah withdrew his forces from Siffin and led them to Egypt with a view to wresting that prize province from the control of Ali. Misfortune was now stalking the footsteps of Ali. Henceforward he was faced not with the loss of territories alone, he came to be exposed to the danger of losing his life as well. Though most of the Kharijites were killed at the Battle of Nahrawan, some Kharijites escaped the massacre, and these people conspicuous for their fanaticism vowed vengeance against Ali. The victory of Nahrawan thus paved the way to the assassination of Ali, for a Kharijite assassinated Ali two years later.
After the Battle of Siffin the Kharijites had separated from the community and camped at Harura a few miles from Kufa. Their stand was that Ali had made a mistake in accepting the arbitration of men Ali was asked by them to lead them to war against Muawiyah. Ali had tried to conciliate them, and assured of them that he would lead them to war in case the decision of the umpires was against the injunctions of Islam. Some sort of conciliation was brought about between Ali and the Kharijites, and most of the Kharijites returned to Kufa. The Kharijites were a restive and over sensitive people of the extremist type. The Kharijites slipped from Kufa one by one, established a settlement at Nahrawan, a few miles to the east of the Tigris near Madain. The Kharijites from Basra and elsewhere in Iraq also migrated to Nahrawan Here the Kharijites gathered in strength. They elected an Amir of their own. They were very meticulous in observing prayers and following other injunctions of Islam. They aspired to live sinless lives. They declared that they were not interested in the affairs of this world, and that they had sold their lives to win paradise in the next world. Where a Kharijite picked up a date under a date tree and ate it he subsequently cut his right hand himself on the ground that the eating of the date without purchasing it from the owner amounted to a theft. On the other hand when any Muslim indulged in any controversy with them, they invariably killed him. They held that no one except themselves was a Muslim, and it devolved on them to get rid of such people who did not agree with them. They let loose a reign of terror in the countryside and created a problem of law and order for the administration. When the Kharijites of Basra migrated to Nahrawan they met in the way some Muslims including Abdullah the son of an eminent companion Khabab. The Kharijites killed him as well as the woman who accompanied him.
When Ali was ready for a march to Syria he sent a message to the Kharijites asking them to join him in the march to Syria. Ali brought home to them the point that he had undertaken to lead them to war against Muawiyah after the decision of the arbitrators was known and now that he had repudiated the decision of the umpires and was leading a force to Syria they should 30 in his ranks as originally agreed upon. The Kharijites gave an insolent reply to the invitation. They said that when they had asked Ali to lead them to war he was the Caliph of the Muslims, and it was incumbent on them to support him for thereby they were to serve the cause of God. After the decision of the umpires the position had been changed. According to this decision Ali had been deposed, and power had been vested in his rival Muawiyah. In these circumstances Ali was undertaking a campaign against Muawiyah for a personal end. They observed that as the warriors of God, they were committed to fight in the cause of God alone, and not in the cause of any particular person to secure a worldly end.
Ali felt that it was futile to argue with a fanatic people like the Kharijites. He was accordingly of the view that they should march to Syria without bothering for the assistance of the Kharijites. His army men however expressed the view that when they were to be away there was the danger that the fanatic Kharijites would terrorize and murder their families. Ali was accordingly prevailed upon to deal with the menace of the Kharijites before proceeding to Syria. Ali agreed to this view and the force that was to proceed to Syria proceeded to Nahrawan instead.
Ali marched with forces to Nahrawan. Reaching Nahrawan Ali planted a standard on the ground, and declared that those who came under the standard would have amnesty and safe conduct. Some persons deserted the Kharijite camp and were allowed amnesty and safe conduct to their houses. Thereafter Ali sent a message to the Kharijite asking them that should surrender the persons who were guilty of killing Abdullah bin Khabab and other Muslims. The Kharijite refused to surrender any person, and declared that they would consider it to be a virtue to fight against Ali and his forces.
Ali marshaled his force and launched an attack against the Kharijites, with the battle cry "on to paradise," the Kharijites rushed on their troops of Ali. The Kharijites hardly numbered four thousand, while the troops Ali numbered about fifty thousand. The Kharijites fought desperately and frantically but they were outnumbered by the forces of Ali. Out of four thousand Kharijites, only two or three dozen Kharijites escaped; the rest were killed. The battle took place on the 9th Safar, 38 A.H. equilent to 659 AD.
Ali won a decisive victory at Nahrawan, but it proved to be a hollow and fatal victory, which diverted Ali from his main war against Muawiyah. After the victory of Nahrawan, Ali felt that the victory would raise the morale of his people. That was however, not to be the case. Ali wanted that from Nahrawan he should proceed direct to Syria. His army, however, desired that they should return to Kufa and thereafter proceed to Syria after taking some rest. Ali agreed with the wishes of his troops. The army returned to Kufa and went to Nukhails outside Kufa. The troops given leaves for two or three days and were commanded to return to camp thereafter in order to proceed to Syria. The men left the camp, but did not return to march to Syria. Ali addressed the people in the mosque, and exhorted them to join the camp. He reproached them for their disobedience and accused them of treachery. These exhortations, reproaches, and accusations had no effect on the people, and heart broken Ali had to abandon the campaign to Syria. When we reflect at the events that happened it appears that there was something wrong with the military organization. The troops lacked discipline, and instead of obeying orders from above, the troops indulged in giving orders. The troops betrayed Ali at Siffin and forced him to stop the war when the victory was almost in sight. At Kufa Ali was betrayed by his troops again when they refused to march to Syria. This naturally led to the advantage of Muawiyah. When he got the intelligence that Ali was planning a march to Syria he led his forces to Siffin. When Ali had to abandon the campaign to Syria, Muawiyah withdrew his forces from Siffin and led them to Egypt with a view to wresting that prize province from the control of Ali. Misfortune was now stalking the footsteps of Ali. Henceforward he was faced not with the loss of territories alone, he came to be exposed to the danger of losing his life as well. Though most of the Kharijites were killed at the Battle of Nahrawan, some Kharijites escaped the massacre, and these people conspicuous for their fanaticism vowed vengeance against Ali. The victory of Nahrawan thus paved the way to the assassination of Ali, for a Kharijite assassinated Ali two years later.
Ali's loss Egypt
On the deposition of Dais bin Sad, Ali appointed Muhammad bin Abu Bakr as the governor of Egypt. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was the son of Abu Bakr and his wife Asma married Ali and her son Muhammad was brought up by Ali. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was passionately devoted to Ali. In the revolt against Othman he had sided with the rebels of Egypt. He had entered the room of Othman and held his beard. Othman upbraided him saying, "If your father had been alive, you would not have done like this." At this reproach Muhammad bin Abu Bakr withdrew. He was not present when Othman was assassinated.
Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was young and handsome. At the time of his appointment as a governor of Egypt, he was twenty-two years of age. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was popular with the young men of Egypt who had rebelled against the authority of Othman and were involved in his murder. All such person called around Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, and he conferred high favors on them. In Egypt there were two parties. One party was pro-Othman. They held that Othman was innocent and those who had killed him were guilty of a crime. This party was led by Muawiyah bin Hudaij as Sakuni, and Musalama bin Mukhallad. They had their concentration in Kharbata in South Egypt. Qais bin Sa'ad did not force these people to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. He made a treaty of neutrality with them "hereunder they undertook that if they were not pressed to take the oath of allegiance to Ali, they would remain at peace and would not create any difficulty for the state and would remain loyal to it. It was in pursuance of this treaty that when Muawiyah the Amir of Syria asked them to join him in raising the demand for vengeance for the blood of Othman, they refused to join him. In view of this treaty of neutrality, peace reigned in Egypt during the governorship of Qais bin Sa'ad. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr had the rashness of youth about him. He came to be surrounded by young men who had rebelled against Othman. Muhammad b Abu Bakr and the people around him considered that they were strong enough to overawe the pro-Othman party, and force them to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr as Governor commanded these men that they should take the oath of allegiance to Ali within one month. The leaders of the pro-Othman party waited on Muhammed bin Abu Bakr and said that his command was in violation of the treaty that they had executed with his predecessor. They advised him to maintain status quo for otherwise the peace of the province would he disturbed. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr did not pay treed to their request, and ordered the invasion of Kharbata. In this action the forces of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr were defeated, and the pro-Othman party broke into open revolt which disturbed the peace of the province.
When news about disturbances in Egypt reached Ali, he summoned Malik Ashtar to Kufa for consultation. Malik Ashtar was the Commander in Chief of the forces of Ali at the Battle of Siffin. After the Battle of Siffin he was appointed as the Governor of Mesopotamia and was stationed at Nisibin. Ali had his consultation with Qais bin Sa'ad about the affairs of Egypt. Ali realized that he had made a mistake in deposing Qais bin Sa'ad from the governorship of Egypt. He, however, could not spare Qais to be reposted as governor of Egypt for he wanted him to remain at Kufa by his side as his adviser. He therefore desired Ashtar to accept the offer of governorship of Egypt and restore order. Malik Ashtar was a good military general, and he already commanded influence with the people of Egypt. When Muawiyah came to know of the appointment of Malik Ashtar as a governor of Egypt he felt much concerned. Malik Ashtar was a strong man, and Muawiyah feared that Malik Ashtar would be able to suppress the disturbance in Egypt with a strong hand, and thus frustrate his (Muawiyah's) efforts to wrest Egypt from the control of Ali. Muawiyah accordingly hatched a conspiracy to kill Malik Ashtar before he could reach Egypt. He took into confidence the chief of Qalzaum, a town on the border of Syria and Egypt, and heavily bribed him to kill Malik Ashtar when he arrived there on the way to Egypt. When Malik Ashtar arrived at Qalzaum, the chief of the town waited on him, and provided for his stay in the city for the night. He was well looked after and served with sumptuous meals. Thereafter he was served with a cup of honey, which was poisoned. Malik Ashtar died within a few hours.
When the news of the death of Malik Ashtar reached Damascus, Muawiyah was overjoyed. He announced the news to the people from the pulpit in the main mosque of Damascus. He said that had Ali two arms. One of his arms was Amar bin Yasir which had been cut in the Battle of Siffin, and with the death of Malik Ashtar his second arm had also been cut off. When Ali came to know to the death of Malik Ashtar he was overwhelmed with grief. The death of his right hand, Malik Ashtar, was a grievous blow for Ali. Ali now seemed to be fighting a losing battle. He was fast losing friends and the number of his enemies was fast multiplying.
When Ali had appointed Malik Ashtar as the governor of Egypt, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr felt dissatisfied at his deposition. Ali wrote a letter to Muhammad bin Abu Bakr to say that he had passed the order in his interest, for he intended to appoint him as a governor of some other peaceful province where things would be easier for him. With the death of Malik Ashtar, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr had to continue in office and bear the brunt of the rebellion of the pro-Othman group from within, and the attack of Muawiyah from without.
As long as the umpires had not given their decision at Dumatul Jandal, and a true obtained between Ali and Muawiyah did not interfere directly in the affairs of Egypt. He, however, indirectly helped the pro-Othman group in Egypt led by Muawiyah bin Hudaij to maintain their stand against the government of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. At Dumatul Jandal, Abu Musa Ashari declared the deposition of Ali and Amr b Al A'as declared for the sovereignty of Muawiyah. This decision, however, reached and howsoever perverse turned the tables on Ali. The implication of the decision was that, henceforward, Muawiyah was the legitimate ruler of the Muslim state, and Ali was the status of a usurper or a rebel against the legitimate authority, in accordance to propaganda of Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas, Muawiyah had promised the governship of Egypt to Muawiyah. After Amr bin Al-Aas had, by a clever trick, conferred the sovereignty on Muawiyah, Muawiyah commissioned 'Amr b Al-Aas to conquer Egypt. When 'Amr departed at the head of on army on the expedition of Egypt Muawiyah said to him, "Amr you were the first conqueror of Egypt, go and reconquer Egypt. "The plan of the pro-Othman party was that while Muawiyah would attack Muhammad bin Abu Bakr in Egypt itself, Amr should lead the attack from across the borders.
When Ali had originally planned an expedition to Syria, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr had a sizable force at his disposal and he could deal with an internal rebellion. When after the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali had to abandon his expedition to Syria, Muawiyah increased his pressure against Egypt. Under the change circumstances many warriors of the forces of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr abandoned his cause and either joined the pro-Othman party or preferred to be neutral and keep aloof from the struggle. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was left with a small force of four thousand person only when Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas launched their offensive. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr requested Ali to send him help. Accounts in this respect vary. According to one account Ali because of the non-cooperation of the people of Kufa could not send help but it was insignificant. According to yet another account whatever reinforcement was sent arrived in Egypt, after all was over and Egypt had been captured in the name of Muawiyah. The force which Muhammad bin Abu Bakr fought desperately and heroically, but they were cut to pieces by the superior forces of the enemy. After Bashr b Kinana had been killed, and further resistance became impossible, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr escaped from the battlefield, and sought refuge in the ruins outside the city of Fustat. Muawiyah secured the countryside and Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was taken captive and brought to Fustat. Abdul Rahman bin Abu Bakr waited on Amr bin Al-Aas and pleaded for the life of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, Amr b Al-A'as send word to Muawiyah that the prisoner should be sent to him. Muawiyah bin Hudaij said that he taken to arms in vengeance for the blood of Othman, and he could not show any mercy to the person who was guilty of the murder of Othman. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr asked for water from his captors. He was told that he had refused water to Othman, thus no water could be allowed to him. When Ali came to know of the end of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr and the fall of Egypt, his grief knew no bounds. In a latter addressed to his cousin Abdullah bin Abbas, Ali mourned the death of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr in heart rending terms. The loss of Egypt was a grievous blow to the prestige of Ali. Day after day, Ali ascended the pulpit, and poured out quotations from the Holy Quran and the traditions of the Holy Prophet, enjoining upon the Muslims their obligation to undertake Jihad. These harangues and exhortations had no effect on the people. Somehow they felt that the star of Ali was waning, and they were in no mood to worship the sun that was about to set.
Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was young and handsome. At the time of his appointment as a governor of Egypt, he was twenty-two years of age. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was popular with the young men of Egypt who had rebelled against the authority of Othman and were involved in his murder. All such person called around Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, and he conferred high favors on them. In Egypt there were two parties. One party was pro-Othman. They held that Othman was innocent and those who had killed him were guilty of a crime. This party was led by Muawiyah bin Hudaij as Sakuni, and Musalama bin Mukhallad. They had their concentration in Kharbata in South Egypt. Qais bin Sa'ad did not force these people to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. He made a treaty of neutrality with them "hereunder they undertook that if they were not pressed to take the oath of allegiance to Ali, they would remain at peace and would not create any difficulty for the state and would remain loyal to it. It was in pursuance of this treaty that when Muawiyah the Amir of Syria asked them to join him in raising the demand for vengeance for the blood of Othman, they refused to join him. In view of this treaty of neutrality, peace reigned in Egypt during the governorship of Qais bin Sa'ad. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr had the rashness of youth about him. He came to be surrounded by young men who had rebelled against Othman. Muhammad b Abu Bakr and the people around him considered that they were strong enough to overawe the pro-Othman party, and force them to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr as Governor commanded these men that they should take the oath of allegiance to Ali within one month. The leaders of the pro-Othman party waited on Muhammed bin Abu Bakr and said that his command was in violation of the treaty that they had executed with his predecessor. They advised him to maintain status quo for otherwise the peace of the province would he disturbed. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr did not pay treed to their request, and ordered the invasion of Kharbata. In this action the forces of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr were defeated, and the pro-Othman party broke into open revolt which disturbed the peace of the province.
When news about disturbances in Egypt reached Ali, he summoned Malik Ashtar to Kufa for consultation. Malik Ashtar was the Commander in Chief of the forces of Ali at the Battle of Siffin. After the Battle of Siffin he was appointed as the Governor of Mesopotamia and was stationed at Nisibin. Ali had his consultation with Qais bin Sa'ad about the affairs of Egypt. Ali realized that he had made a mistake in deposing Qais bin Sa'ad from the governorship of Egypt. He, however, could not spare Qais to be reposted as governor of Egypt for he wanted him to remain at Kufa by his side as his adviser. He therefore desired Ashtar to accept the offer of governorship of Egypt and restore order. Malik Ashtar was a good military general, and he already commanded influence with the people of Egypt. When Muawiyah came to know of the appointment of Malik Ashtar as a governor of Egypt he felt much concerned. Malik Ashtar was a strong man, and Muawiyah feared that Malik Ashtar would be able to suppress the disturbance in Egypt with a strong hand, and thus frustrate his (Muawiyah's) efforts to wrest Egypt from the control of Ali. Muawiyah accordingly hatched a conspiracy to kill Malik Ashtar before he could reach Egypt. He took into confidence the chief of Qalzaum, a town on the border of Syria and Egypt, and heavily bribed him to kill Malik Ashtar when he arrived there on the way to Egypt. When Malik Ashtar arrived at Qalzaum, the chief of the town waited on him, and provided for his stay in the city for the night. He was well looked after and served with sumptuous meals. Thereafter he was served with a cup of honey, which was poisoned. Malik Ashtar died within a few hours.
When the news of the death of Malik Ashtar reached Damascus, Muawiyah was overjoyed. He announced the news to the people from the pulpit in the main mosque of Damascus. He said that had Ali two arms. One of his arms was Amar bin Yasir which had been cut in the Battle of Siffin, and with the death of Malik Ashtar his second arm had also been cut off. When Ali came to know to the death of Malik Ashtar he was overwhelmed with grief. The death of his right hand, Malik Ashtar, was a grievous blow for Ali. Ali now seemed to be fighting a losing battle. He was fast losing friends and the number of his enemies was fast multiplying.
When Ali had appointed Malik Ashtar as the governor of Egypt, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr felt dissatisfied at his deposition. Ali wrote a letter to Muhammad bin Abu Bakr to say that he had passed the order in his interest, for he intended to appoint him as a governor of some other peaceful province where things would be easier for him. With the death of Malik Ashtar, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr had to continue in office and bear the brunt of the rebellion of the pro-Othman group from within, and the attack of Muawiyah from without.
As long as the umpires had not given their decision at Dumatul Jandal, and a true obtained between Ali and Muawiyah did not interfere directly in the affairs of Egypt. He, however, indirectly helped the pro-Othman group in Egypt led by Muawiyah bin Hudaij to maintain their stand against the government of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. At Dumatul Jandal, Abu Musa Ashari declared the deposition of Ali and Amr b Al A'as declared for the sovereignty of Muawiyah. This decision, however, reached and howsoever perverse turned the tables on Ali. The implication of the decision was that, henceforward, Muawiyah was the legitimate ruler of the Muslim state, and Ali was the status of a usurper or a rebel against the legitimate authority, in accordance to propaganda of Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas, Muawiyah had promised the governship of Egypt to Muawiyah. After Amr bin Al-Aas had, by a clever trick, conferred the sovereignty on Muawiyah, Muawiyah commissioned 'Amr b Al-Aas to conquer Egypt. When 'Amr departed at the head of on army on the expedition of Egypt Muawiyah said to him, "Amr you were the first conqueror of Egypt, go and reconquer Egypt. "The plan of the pro-Othman party was that while Muawiyah would attack Muhammad bin Abu Bakr in Egypt itself, Amr should lead the attack from across the borders.
When Ali had originally planned an expedition to Syria, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr had a sizable force at his disposal and he could deal with an internal rebellion. When after the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali had to abandon his expedition to Syria, Muawiyah increased his pressure against Egypt. Under the change circumstances many warriors of the forces of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr abandoned his cause and either joined the pro-Othman party or preferred to be neutral and keep aloof from the struggle. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was left with a small force of four thousand person only when Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas launched their offensive. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr requested Ali to send him help. Accounts in this respect vary. According to one account Ali because of the non-cooperation of the people of Kufa could not send help but it was insignificant. According to yet another account whatever reinforcement was sent arrived in Egypt, after all was over and Egypt had been captured in the name of Muawiyah. The force which Muhammad bin Abu Bakr fought desperately and heroically, but they were cut to pieces by the superior forces of the enemy. After Bashr b Kinana had been killed, and further resistance became impossible, Muhammad bin Abu Bakr escaped from the battlefield, and sought refuge in the ruins outside the city of Fustat. Muawiyah secured the countryside and Muhammad bin Abu Bakr was taken captive and brought to Fustat. Abdul Rahman bin Abu Bakr waited on Amr bin Al-Aas and pleaded for the life of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, Amr b Al-A'as send word to Muawiyah that the prisoner should be sent to him. Muawiyah bin Hudaij said that he taken to arms in vengeance for the blood of Othman, and he could not show any mercy to the person who was guilty of the murder of Othman. Muhammad bin Abu Bakr asked for water from his captors. He was told that he had refused water to Othman, thus no water could be allowed to him. When Ali came to know of the end of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr and the fall of Egypt, his grief knew no bounds. In a latter addressed to his cousin Abdullah bin Abbas, Ali mourned the death of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr in heart rending terms. The loss of Egypt was a grievous blow to the prestige of Ali. Day after day, Ali ascended the pulpit, and poured out quotations from the Holy Quran and the traditions of the Holy Prophet, enjoining upon the Muslims their obligation to undertake Jihad. These harangues and exhortations had no effect on the people. Somehow they felt that the star of Ali was waning, and they were in no mood to worship the sun that was about to set.
Trouble in Basra
After the conquest of Egypt, the strategy of Muawiyah was that discontent should be created in the territories under the control of Ali. A vigorous propaganda campaign was whipped up accusing Ali of breach of faith in not accepting the verdict of the umpires at Dumatul Jandal, whereas according to the pact executed at Siffin such verdict was to be binding. In these territories there were already many tribes which were pro-Othman. Those tribes were bribed to carry on propaganda against Ali, and sponsor activities likely to subvert the administration of Ali in the various provinces.
Muawiyah tried to create trouble in Basra in the first instance. After Kufa the main concentration of the Kharijites was in Basra. After the Battle of Nahrawan, the Kharijites had become the bitter enemies of Ali. The game of Muawiyah was to incite the Kharijites of Basra to create trouble for Ali. There were many persons in Basra who were originally pro-Othman, but who had to take the oath of allegiance to Ali after the Battle of the Camel. The plan of Muawiyah was to motivate such people to throw off their allegiance to Ali. The governorship of Basra was held by Abdullah bin Abbas, cousin of Ali. Abdullah bin Abbas was present at Dumatul Jandal when the umpires gave their verdict. This verdict was a great shock for Ali. Abdullah bin Abbas had comforted Ali and had counseled him not to lose heart. He had advised Ali to stick to his office for the decision of the umpires was a farce and therefore not binding.
Thereafter the troubles of Ali continued to multiply. He had to fight against the Kharijites, and though the Battle of Nahrawan was won, it brought further difficulties for Ali. The army that he intended to lead to Syria to settle accounts with Muawiyah refused to cooperate. A great blow fell on Ali when the province of Egypt was lost. The death of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, a ward of Ali greatly distressed and grieved Ali. In order to condole the death of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr with Ali, Abdullah bin Abbas set out from Basra for Kufa. During his absence the charge of Basra was held by Ziyad bin Abihi. Ziyad was the son of a slave girl Samia, and the name of his father was not known. Later Muawiyah acknowledged Ziyad as a son of his father Abu Sufyan from the slave girl Samia. Ziyad was a capable person and at this stage he was very loyal to Ali.
After Abdullah bin Abbas had left Basra for Kufa, Muawiyah sent a contingent of 2,000 horse under the command of Abdullah bin Amr al Hadrami, a cousin of Othman. It was not an expedition of a regular invasion. The strategy adopted was that of peaceful penetration. The idea was to exploit the differences among the tribes in the area, flare up such dissentions and create problems for the administration of Ali. On arrival in Basra, the Syrians became the guests of the Banu Tamim, a tribe known for its sympathy to Othman. Al Hadrami told the Banu Tamim that as a result of the decision of the umpires at Dumatul Jandal, sovereignty had passed on to Muawiyah, and as such they should owe allegiance to Muawiyah. Banu Tamim accordingly took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. There was a sizable section of the people of Basra proper who had originally sided with Ayesha, but who were later forced to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. These pro-Othman persons joined the Banu Tamim, and took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. These defections weakened the position of the Ali government in Basra. In the circumstances Ziyad in charge of the government of Basra was forced to seek the protection of the Azd tribe, a tribe opposed to Banu Tamim.
At this stage the situation in Basra took the shape of conflict between the two tribes, Banu Tamim and Banu Azd. The Ali government had ceased to function independently and was reduced to the status of a vassal of the Azd tribe. Ziyad wrote to Ali informing him of the situation in Basra. Ali sent a small force from Kufa under the command of Abu bin Dhabiah Mujashi. He belonged to the Banu Tamim, and his mission was to prevail upon his tribes to repudiate their allegiance to Muawiyah. Al Mujashi failed in his mission, and he was killed by his own tribesmen.
At the death of Mujashi, Ziyad planned military action against Banu Tamim to seek. Vengeance for the blood of Mujashi. The two tribes of Azd and Banu Tamim however entered into a truce agreement to maintain the status quo, and the military action contemplated by Ziyad could not be undertaken. Ziyad brought the state of affairs to the notice of Ali. This time Ali sent a force under Jariah bin Qadamah. He also belonged to the Banu Tamim tribe. The mission of Jariah met with success and he was able to win many persons of the Banu Tamim to his side. Jariah and his men besieged the house where al Hadrami was lodged, and set it on fire. Al Hadrami and his men were burnt alive. With the death of al Hadrami, the government of Ali regained the control of Basra.
Abdullah bin Abbas returned from Kufa and assumed the office of the Governor of Basra. Although the government of Ali had succeeded in regaining the control of Basra, yet that was not the end of the troubles in Basra. Most of the people who had repudiated the oath of allegiance of Ali, and had taken the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah once again recanted and took the oath of allegiance to Ali. Under the circumstances the process of oath taking lost its solemnity and became a farce. The people came to change their allegiance as they would change their clothes. That bred discontentment and a sense of insecurity among the people.
Things on the Basra front acquired a sinister hue when Abdullah bin Abbas the Governor of Basra defalcated the state funds. Abul Aswad in charge of the Baitul Mal at Basra brought to the notice of Ali that heavy amounts had been received in the state treasury as "Kharaj", but these amounts had been defalcated by the Governor. Without disclosing the source of his information, Ali wrote to Abdullah bin Abbas that it had come to his notice that he had defalcated heavy amounts from the state treasury. Ali pointed out that the Government was merely a trustee of the state fund and according to the injunctions of Islam, such funds could not be diverted to serve personal ends. Abdullah bin Abbas wrote in reply that the report that had been made to Ali was false. He added that he was fully conscious of his duties and obligations as the Governor, and the Caliph should have no anxiety or misgiving on that score. This reply did not satisfy Ali and he asked Abdullah bin Abbas to furnish detailed accounts as to the receipts and expenditure out of the state funds. Abdullah bin Abbas took offense at the order of Ali requiring him to furnish accounts. He did not furnish any accounts, but instead resigned from his office, and proceeded to Makkah taking away all the state treasury with him. Abdullah had been the right hand man of Ali. He was closely related to him, and was his chief counselor. Such defalcation and desertion by his close relation and best friend came as a great blow to Ali. With the ill gotten money Abdullah bin Abbas purchased some beautiful slave girls. When Ali came to know of these purchases he wrote a letter to Abdullah bin Abbas bringing home to him the gravity of his crime. Abdullah bin Abbas wrote back to say that if what he had done was a crime, it was not as heinous as the crime committed by Ali himself in causing the bloodshed of thousands of Muslims for the sake of personal power. That broke the heart of Ali. Such shafts of ingratitude from a close associate and dear friend made Ali feel bitter. That was a betrayal which made Ali lose faith in human character.
In most of the source books that have come down to us an account of the defalcation and betrayal of Abdullah bin Abbas is given in terms what has been narrated above. There is, however, some controversy on the point.
According to some accounts when Abdullah b Abbas saw that the days of the rule of Ali were numbered and Muawiyah was likely to capture power he took away all that was in the state treasury to prevent it from falling into the bands of Muawiyah. What he did was precedented. When Ali deposed the Othmanite Governor of Yemen, and appointed Abdullah bin Abbas as the Governor, the previous Governor had taken away all the state treasury with him to Makkah.
According to one account the entire story of the defalcation and desertion of Ibn Abbas is fictitious. According to this account it is held that Abdullah bin Abbas was the Governor of Basra when Ali was assassinated. He held the office during the caliphate of Imam Hasan and relinquished the office only when Imam Hasan abdicated the caliphate in favor of Muawiyah. It is alleged that when the Abbasids came to power and differences developed between the Abbasids and the Alids, some writers invented the story of the defalcation of Abdullah bin Abbas to cast aspersions on the character of the Abbasids.
Muawiyah tried to create trouble in Basra in the first instance. After Kufa the main concentration of the Kharijites was in Basra. After the Battle of Nahrawan, the Kharijites had become the bitter enemies of Ali. The game of Muawiyah was to incite the Kharijites of Basra to create trouble for Ali. There were many persons in Basra who were originally pro-Othman, but who had to take the oath of allegiance to Ali after the Battle of the Camel. The plan of Muawiyah was to motivate such people to throw off their allegiance to Ali. The governorship of Basra was held by Abdullah bin Abbas, cousin of Ali. Abdullah bin Abbas was present at Dumatul Jandal when the umpires gave their verdict. This verdict was a great shock for Ali. Abdullah bin Abbas had comforted Ali and had counseled him not to lose heart. He had advised Ali to stick to his office for the decision of the umpires was a farce and therefore not binding.
Thereafter the troubles of Ali continued to multiply. He had to fight against the Kharijites, and though the Battle of Nahrawan was won, it brought further difficulties for Ali. The army that he intended to lead to Syria to settle accounts with Muawiyah refused to cooperate. A great blow fell on Ali when the province of Egypt was lost. The death of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, a ward of Ali greatly distressed and grieved Ali. In order to condole the death of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr with Ali, Abdullah bin Abbas set out from Basra for Kufa. During his absence the charge of Basra was held by Ziyad bin Abihi. Ziyad was the son of a slave girl Samia, and the name of his father was not known. Later Muawiyah acknowledged Ziyad as a son of his father Abu Sufyan from the slave girl Samia. Ziyad was a capable person and at this stage he was very loyal to Ali.
After Abdullah bin Abbas had left Basra for Kufa, Muawiyah sent a contingent of 2,000 horse under the command of Abdullah bin Amr al Hadrami, a cousin of Othman. It was not an expedition of a regular invasion. The strategy adopted was that of peaceful penetration. The idea was to exploit the differences among the tribes in the area, flare up such dissentions and create problems for the administration of Ali. On arrival in Basra, the Syrians became the guests of the Banu Tamim, a tribe known for its sympathy to Othman. Al Hadrami told the Banu Tamim that as a result of the decision of the umpires at Dumatul Jandal, sovereignty had passed on to Muawiyah, and as such they should owe allegiance to Muawiyah. Banu Tamim accordingly took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. There was a sizable section of the people of Basra proper who had originally sided with Ayesha, but who were later forced to take the oath of allegiance to Ali. These pro-Othman persons joined the Banu Tamim, and took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. These defections weakened the position of the Ali government in Basra. In the circumstances Ziyad in charge of the government of Basra was forced to seek the protection of the Azd tribe, a tribe opposed to Banu Tamim.
At this stage the situation in Basra took the shape of conflict between the two tribes, Banu Tamim and Banu Azd. The Ali government had ceased to function independently and was reduced to the status of a vassal of the Azd tribe. Ziyad wrote to Ali informing him of the situation in Basra. Ali sent a small force from Kufa under the command of Abu bin Dhabiah Mujashi. He belonged to the Banu Tamim, and his mission was to prevail upon his tribes to repudiate their allegiance to Muawiyah. Al Mujashi failed in his mission, and he was killed by his own tribesmen.
At the death of Mujashi, Ziyad planned military action against Banu Tamim to seek. Vengeance for the blood of Mujashi. The two tribes of Azd and Banu Tamim however entered into a truce agreement to maintain the status quo, and the military action contemplated by Ziyad could not be undertaken. Ziyad brought the state of affairs to the notice of Ali. This time Ali sent a force under Jariah bin Qadamah. He also belonged to the Banu Tamim tribe. The mission of Jariah met with success and he was able to win many persons of the Banu Tamim to his side. Jariah and his men besieged the house where al Hadrami was lodged, and set it on fire. Al Hadrami and his men were burnt alive. With the death of al Hadrami, the government of Ali regained the control of Basra.
Abdullah bin Abbas returned from Kufa and assumed the office of the Governor of Basra. Although the government of Ali had succeeded in regaining the control of Basra, yet that was not the end of the troubles in Basra. Most of the people who had repudiated the oath of allegiance of Ali, and had taken the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah once again recanted and took the oath of allegiance to Ali. Under the circumstances the process of oath taking lost its solemnity and became a farce. The people came to change their allegiance as they would change their clothes. That bred discontentment and a sense of insecurity among the people.
Things on the Basra front acquired a sinister hue when Abdullah bin Abbas the Governor of Basra defalcated the state funds. Abul Aswad in charge of the Baitul Mal at Basra brought to the notice of Ali that heavy amounts had been received in the state treasury as "Kharaj", but these amounts had been defalcated by the Governor. Without disclosing the source of his information, Ali wrote to Abdullah bin Abbas that it had come to his notice that he had defalcated heavy amounts from the state treasury. Ali pointed out that the Government was merely a trustee of the state fund and according to the injunctions of Islam, such funds could not be diverted to serve personal ends. Abdullah bin Abbas wrote in reply that the report that had been made to Ali was false. He added that he was fully conscious of his duties and obligations as the Governor, and the Caliph should have no anxiety or misgiving on that score. This reply did not satisfy Ali and he asked Abdullah bin Abbas to furnish detailed accounts as to the receipts and expenditure out of the state funds. Abdullah bin Abbas took offense at the order of Ali requiring him to furnish accounts. He did not furnish any accounts, but instead resigned from his office, and proceeded to Makkah taking away all the state treasury with him. Abdullah had been the right hand man of Ali. He was closely related to him, and was his chief counselor. Such defalcation and desertion by his close relation and best friend came as a great blow to Ali. With the ill gotten money Abdullah bin Abbas purchased some beautiful slave girls. When Ali came to know of these purchases he wrote a letter to Abdullah bin Abbas bringing home to him the gravity of his crime. Abdullah bin Abbas wrote back to say that if what he had done was a crime, it was not as heinous as the crime committed by Ali himself in causing the bloodshed of thousands of Muslims for the sake of personal power. That broke the heart of Ali. Such shafts of ingratitude from a close associate and dear friend made Ali feel bitter. That was a betrayal which made Ali lose faith in human character.
In most of the source books that have come down to us an account of the defalcation and betrayal of Abdullah bin Abbas is given in terms what has been narrated above. There is, however, some controversy on the point.
According to some accounts when Abdullah b Abbas saw that the days of the rule of Ali were numbered and Muawiyah was likely to capture power he took away all that was in the state treasury to prevent it from falling into the bands of Muawiyah. What he did was precedented. When Ali deposed the Othmanite Governor of Yemen, and appointed Abdullah bin Abbas as the Governor, the previous Governor had taken away all the state treasury with him to Makkah.
According to one account the entire story of the defalcation and desertion of Ibn Abbas is fictitious. According to this account it is held that Abdullah bin Abbas was the Governor of Basra when Ali was assassinated. He held the office during the caliphate of Imam Hasan and relinquished the office only when Imam Hasan abdicated the caliphate in favor of Muawiyah. It is alleged that when the Abbasids came to power and differences developed between the Abbasids and the Alids, some writers invented the story of the defalcation of Abdullah bin Abbas to cast aspersions on the character of the Abbasids.
The Battle of Ahwaz
Kurrit bin Rashid was the chief of the Banu Najia tribe. He belonged to Bahrain. In the Battle of Camel at Basra he was an ally of Ali. He and his men fought on the side of Ali against the Syrians. He developed differences with Ali on the occasion of the Battle of Nahrawan. According to some accounts he sympathized with the Kharijites, and got alienated from Ali because of the massacre of the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan. One day after the Battle of Nahrawan he appeared before Ali, and accused him of breach of trust by first agreeing to abide by the verdict of the umpires, and thereafter going back on this undertaking and refusing to be bound by the decision of the umpires. Ali told him that he had not committed any breach of trust. The decision of the umpire was a farce and had not been taken according to the injunctions of Islam as provided for in the agreement executed at Siffin. Ali told him that if he wanted to be enlightened in the matter, he could advance arguments in support of the righteousness of the course adopted by him in repudiating the decision of the umpires. Khurrit said that he would come to Ali the next day to hear his arguments.
Khurrith b Rashid, however, did not keep up his word, and before the next day dawned, Khurrit b Rashid and his three hundred followers escaped from Kufa. In the way they came across two men, and asked them who they were. One of them said that he was a Jew. He was let off being a Dhimmi. The other man said that he was a Muslim. He was asked what he thought of Ali. He said that he had high opinion about Ali, and regarded him as the Commander of the Faithful. Thereupon the Muslim was hacked to pieces by the men of Khurrit b Rashid.
When Ali came to know of the flight of Khurrit bin Rashid, he sent a detachment of about three hundred persons under the command of Ziyad bin Khasfa in pursuit of the fugitives. Ziyad overtook Khurrit at Mazar. Ziyad asked Khurrit to surrender. Khurrit said that he would first like to have a talk with Ziyad. Ziyad allowed him to have his say. Khurrit accused Ali of the breach of trust. He said that after the decision of the umpires, Ali should have stepped aside from the caliphate, and allowed the community to elect the Caliph. Ziyad pointed out that the umpires' decision about the reference of the issue to the community had not been accepted by the umpire of Muawiyah. Sovereignty was declared to belong to Muawiyah as a farce, and by no criteria Muawiyah could claim preference over Ali in the matter of the caliphate. Khurrit said that whatever the case he refused to acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Ziyad said that in that case he would be forced to take punitive action against him as a rebel. Khurrit said that he was not prepared to submit, and the use of any force would be met with force. The two sides thereafter took to the sword. The battle waged for the whole of the day. Two men were killed from the troops of Ziyad, while five men were killed from the side of Khurrit. The battle proved indecisive, and the troops retired to their respective camps at nightfall. Although the casualties were not large, the number of persons who were wounded from either side was sufficiently large. When the next day dawned, it was found that Khurrit and his men had escaped during the night. Ziyad and his men thereafter proceeded to Basra. Here the scouts brought the intelligence that Khurrit and his men had proceeded to Ahwaz. Ziyad and his men halted at Basra, and sought for further instructions from Ali.
Ali appreciated the services of Ziyad and his men. He asked them to return to Kufa. From Kufa Ali sent a larger force comprising about 2,003 men under the command of Muaqil b Qais. This force proceeded direct to Ahwaz. The Governor of Basra was also asked to send a force from Basra in aid of the main force under Muaqil b Qais. In the neighborhood of Ahwaz, Khurrit was able to muster a considerable following. He incited the people not to pay taxes to the Government. Brigands and other disorderly persons also joined his ranks. A pitched battle was fought outside Ahwaz. Khurrit and his men suffered defeat and fled to Ramhurmuz. The action that took place at Ramhurmuz also ended in the reverse of Khurrit. Thereafter Khurrit escaped to Bahrain. The Alid forces pursued Khurrit to Bahrain. Here Muaqil issued a warning to the people that those who deserted Khurrit would be granted amnesty, but those who chose to fight would be allowed no mercy. Many persons availed of this amnesty and defected from Khurrit. Nevertheless many persons remained steadfast to his cause and fought desperately. In the bloody encounter that ensued Khurrit fell along with many comrades. Those who survived were taken captives and all was over with the revolt.
It transpired that during these disturbances many persons who were originally Christians but had been converted to Islam were reconverted to Christianity. They felt that Christianity was a religion of peace, but Islam was a strange religion, the followers of which cut at one another's throat mercilessly. Muaqail gave an option to these persons to be reconverted to Islam, but those who refused were executed on the charge of apostasy. The number of captives exceeded five hundred. As these persons parted from their families their womenfolk raised heart-rending shrieks. The Ali Administrator of the city of Ardshir who belonged to the same tribe as the captives was touched at the plight of these unfortunate men. This officer, Masakala, by name offered to ransom all the captives. The amount of ransom was worked out at two hundred thousand dirhams. He paid one 1akh dirhams forthwith, and promised to pay the balance after he had collected the amounts from the persons, concerned Muaqil accordingly handed over all the captives to Masakala. Ali was happy at the suppression of the revolt of Khurrit. He appreciated the services of Muaqil and his men for the successful termination of the campaign. He was also well impressed at the action taken by Masakala on humane and compassionate grounds. Masakala realized the amount from the persons concerned but he defalcated in depositing the amount in the state treasury. When pressed to pay the amount, he escaped to Syria where Muawiyah welcomed him and gave him an office. Ali was much grieved at this betrayal. It appeared the people had lost the Islamic values which the Holy Prophet had tried to inculcate in them.
Khurrith b Rashid, however, did not keep up his word, and before the next day dawned, Khurrit b Rashid and his three hundred followers escaped from Kufa. In the way they came across two men, and asked them who they were. One of them said that he was a Jew. He was let off being a Dhimmi. The other man said that he was a Muslim. He was asked what he thought of Ali. He said that he had high opinion about Ali, and regarded him as the Commander of the Faithful. Thereupon the Muslim was hacked to pieces by the men of Khurrit b Rashid.
When Ali came to know of the flight of Khurrit bin Rashid, he sent a detachment of about three hundred persons under the command of Ziyad bin Khasfa in pursuit of the fugitives. Ziyad overtook Khurrit at Mazar. Ziyad asked Khurrit to surrender. Khurrit said that he would first like to have a talk with Ziyad. Ziyad allowed him to have his say. Khurrit accused Ali of the breach of trust. He said that after the decision of the umpires, Ali should have stepped aside from the caliphate, and allowed the community to elect the Caliph. Ziyad pointed out that the umpires' decision about the reference of the issue to the community had not been accepted by the umpire of Muawiyah. Sovereignty was declared to belong to Muawiyah as a farce, and by no criteria Muawiyah could claim preference over Ali in the matter of the caliphate. Khurrit said that whatever the case he refused to acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Ziyad said that in that case he would be forced to take punitive action against him as a rebel. Khurrit said that he was not prepared to submit, and the use of any force would be met with force. The two sides thereafter took to the sword. The battle waged for the whole of the day. Two men were killed from the troops of Ziyad, while five men were killed from the side of Khurrit. The battle proved indecisive, and the troops retired to their respective camps at nightfall. Although the casualties were not large, the number of persons who were wounded from either side was sufficiently large. When the next day dawned, it was found that Khurrit and his men had escaped during the night. Ziyad and his men thereafter proceeded to Basra. Here the scouts brought the intelligence that Khurrit and his men had proceeded to Ahwaz. Ziyad and his men halted at Basra, and sought for further instructions from Ali.
Ali appreciated the services of Ziyad and his men. He asked them to return to Kufa. From Kufa Ali sent a larger force comprising about 2,003 men under the command of Muaqil b Qais. This force proceeded direct to Ahwaz. The Governor of Basra was also asked to send a force from Basra in aid of the main force under Muaqil b Qais. In the neighborhood of Ahwaz, Khurrit was able to muster a considerable following. He incited the people not to pay taxes to the Government. Brigands and other disorderly persons also joined his ranks. A pitched battle was fought outside Ahwaz. Khurrit and his men suffered defeat and fled to Ramhurmuz. The action that took place at Ramhurmuz also ended in the reverse of Khurrit. Thereafter Khurrit escaped to Bahrain. The Alid forces pursued Khurrit to Bahrain. Here Muaqil issued a warning to the people that those who deserted Khurrit would be granted amnesty, but those who chose to fight would be allowed no mercy. Many persons availed of this amnesty and defected from Khurrit. Nevertheless many persons remained steadfast to his cause and fought desperately. In the bloody encounter that ensued Khurrit fell along with many comrades. Those who survived were taken captives and all was over with the revolt.
It transpired that during these disturbances many persons who were originally Christians but had been converted to Islam were reconverted to Christianity. They felt that Christianity was a religion of peace, but Islam was a strange religion, the followers of which cut at one another's throat mercilessly. Muaqail gave an option to these persons to be reconverted to Islam, but those who refused were executed on the charge of apostasy. The number of captives exceeded five hundred. As these persons parted from their families their womenfolk raised heart-rending shrieks. The Ali Administrator of the city of Ardshir who belonged to the same tribe as the captives was touched at the plight of these unfortunate men. This officer, Masakala, by name offered to ransom all the captives. The amount of ransom was worked out at two hundred thousand dirhams. He paid one 1akh dirhams forthwith, and promised to pay the balance after he had collected the amounts from the persons, concerned Muaqil accordingly handed over all the captives to Masakala. Ali was happy at the suppression of the revolt of Khurrit. He appreciated the services of Muaqil and his men for the successful termination of the campaign. He was also well impressed at the action taken by Masakala on humane and compassionate grounds. Masakala realized the amount from the persons concerned but he defalcated in depositing the amount in the state treasury. When pressed to pay the amount, he escaped to Syria where Muawiyah welcomed him and gave him an office. Ali was much grieved at this betrayal. It appeared the people had lost the Islamic values which the Holy Prophet had tried to inculcate in them.
Ali Loss Territories of Medina, Makkah and Yemen
After the failure of Muawiyah's mission in Basra, he decided to undertake raids on Iraq with a view to create a sense of insecurity among the people of Iraq in general, and the people living in the border areas in particular. Muawiyah organized raiding parties under different commanders, and these parties were commanded to undertake raids in the territory of Iraq all along the border. A party under the command of No'man bin Bashir was asked to ravage Ayn Tamr. A party under Sufyan bin Auf was required to operate against Hit and Anbar. The third party under Abdullah bin Masa'ada al Fazari was commanded to operate in the Taima section. Another party under Zohak bin Qais raided Upper Mesopotamia. The purpose of these raids was to ravage and plunder. As a result of these raids, the Syrians gathered considerable booty. These parties appeared as a whirlwind and after striking blows, and ravaging the countryside they withdrew to their territory. Ali strengthened the border security guard force. As a result of these raids, the Syrians were not able to occupy any area in Iraq, but such inroads had a considerable nuisance value, and proved to be a great drain on the meager financial resources at the disposal of Ali. Even when there were disturbances along the border, the people of Kufa remained indifferent, and they did not respond to Ali's call to rise en masse in defense of their territories. It was with great difficulty that Ali managed to raise some force to defend the border, but its strength was very small as compared with the extent of the danger that faced the State.
In the beginning of 660 C. E. near the time of the annual pilgrimage Muawiyah sent an expedition of 3,000 horses under the command of Basr bin Artat to ravage Hijaz, Basr was a hard hearted savage brute, cruel by nature. His mission was to win over the people of Hijaz to the side of Muawiyah. Basr began his campaign with Madina. Ali had shifted the capital from Madina to Kufa, in order to keep the war away from Madina, and thereby respect the sanctity of the city of the Holy Prophet. Ali had accordingly made no arrangements for the defense of Madina. When the force of Muawiyah appeared before Madina, the Ali Governor fled the city, and Basr occupied it without any resistance. Basr asked the people of Madina to assemble in the Prophet's mosque. Basr ascended the pulpit, and accused the people of Madina in not coming to the kelp of their Caliph Othman, and let him be murdered in cold blood before their very eyes. He made a passionate plea for vengeance for the blood of Othman. He said that he would show no mercy to the murderers of Othman. The people assembled in the mosque shed tears of repentance and mourned the assassination of Othman. Thereafter all the people of Madina took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. Basr deposed the Ali Governor of Madina, and appointed a new Governor on behalf of Muawiyah. Madina was thus lost to Ali.
From Madina, the Syrians proceeded to Makkah. Qatam bin Abbas the Ali Governor of Makkah fled the city, and the people of Makkah did not offer any resistance. Like the people of Madina, the people of Makkah offered their allegiance to Muawiyah. Those who did not take the oath of allegiance escaped from the city. Among them was Abu Musa Ash'ari, one of the umpires at Dumatul Jandal. Abu Musa Ash'ari had given his decision against Ali, but he had not favored Muawiyah either. He was pursued, and brought to Makkah where he was produced before Basr. Basr asked him why he had escaped from Makkah. He said that he had fled for his life. Basr said that if he valued his life, he should take the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. Like the other people of Makkah, Abu Musa Ashari took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. Thus Hijaz web lost to Ali, and that was obviously a great blow to his cause.
Basr deposed the Ali Governor of Makkah and appointed a new Governor on behalf of Muawiyah. Thereafter Basr and his troops proceeded to Yemen. The Governor of Yemen was Ubaidullah bin Abbas, a cousin of Ali. He made a feeble attempt to resist the invader, but then fled from the battlefield leaving the command to his deputy Abdullah Harithi. In the action that followed Abdullah was defeated and killed. Thereafter Basr entered the capital city of Yemen. He resorted to atrocities as a savage brute and is referred to by some historians as a second Nero. He killed the young children of Ubaidullah. Most of the men of Yemen who had fought against the Syrians were taken captive and killed. Like the people of Madina and Makkah, the people of Yemen were made to take the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah.
In the beginning of 660 C. E. near the time of the annual pilgrimage Muawiyah sent an expedition of 3,000 horses under the command of Basr bin Artat to ravage Hijaz, Basr was a hard hearted savage brute, cruel by nature. His mission was to win over the people of Hijaz to the side of Muawiyah. Basr began his campaign with Madina. Ali had shifted the capital from Madina to Kufa, in order to keep the war away from Madina, and thereby respect the sanctity of the city of the Holy Prophet. Ali had accordingly made no arrangements for the defense of Madina. When the force of Muawiyah appeared before Madina, the Ali Governor fled the city, and Basr occupied it without any resistance. Basr asked the people of Madina to assemble in the Prophet's mosque. Basr ascended the pulpit, and accused the people of Madina in not coming to the kelp of their Caliph Othman, and let him be murdered in cold blood before their very eyes. He made a passionate plea for vengeance for the blood of Othman. He said that he would show no mercy to the murderers of Othman. The people assembled in the mosque shed tears of repentance and mourned the assassination of Othman. Thereafter all the people of Madina took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. Basr deposed the Ali Governor of Madina, and appointed a new Governor on behalf of Muawiyah. Madina was thus lost to Ali.
From Madina, the Syrians proceeded to Makkah. Qatam bin Abbas the Ali Governor of Makkah fled the city, and the people of Makkah did not offer any resistance. Like the people of Madina, the people of Makkah offered their allegiance to Muawiyah. Those who did not take the oath of allegiance escaped from the city. Among them was Abu Musa Ash'ari, one of the umpires at Dumatul Jandal. Abu Musa Ash'ari had given his decision against Ali, but he had not favored Muawiyah either. He was pursued, and brought to Makkah where he was produced before Basr. Basr asked him why he had escaped from Makkah. He said that he had fled for his life. Basr said that if he valued his life, he should take the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. Like the other people of Makkah, Abu Musa Ashari took the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah. Thus Hijaz web lost to Ali, and that was obviously a great blow to his cause.
Basr deposed the Ali Governor of Makkah and appointed a new Governor on behalf of Muawiyah. Thereafter Basr and his troops proceeded to Yemen. The Governor of Yemen was Ubaidullah bin Abbas, a cousin of Ali. He made a feeble attempt to resist the invader, but then fled from the battlefield leaving the command to his deputy Abdullah Harithi. In the action that followed Abdullah was defeated and killed. Thereafter Basr entered the capital city of Yemen. He resorted to atrocities as a savage brute and is referred to by some historians as a second Nero. He killed the young children of Ubaidullah. Most of the men of Yemen who had fought against the Syrians were taken captive and killed. Like the people of Madina and Makkah, the people of Yemen were made to take the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah.
Ali's counter attack
Ali mustered a force 4,000 strong and sent it to Yemen under the command of Jariah bin Qodamah and Wuhaib bin Massood al Thaqfi. On the way to Yemen the forces of Ali passed through the territory of Najran, whose inhabitants supported Muawiyah. They resisted the advance of the Alid force. In the action that followed the Najranites were defeated and killed in large numbers. When Basr came to know that the Ali force was advancing on Yemen, he could not make up his mind to risk an encounter with the Ali force. Before the Ali force reached Yemen, Basr and his Syrian troops made good their escape from Yemen and took the road to Syria. The Ali forces occupied Yemen, and restored the rule of Ali. The Governor appointed by Basr was deposed, and the Governor of Ali resumed his office. The people who had taken the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah recanted, and took the oath of allegiance to Ali again.
After restoring the law and order in Yemen, the forces of Ali marched to Makkah and then to Madina. At both the places the story of Yemen was repeated. The Governors of Muawiyah deposed and the Governors of Ali were reinstated. The people who had taken the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah recanted and took the oath of allegiance to Ali again.
As a consequence of his raids, Muawiyah was not able to acquire any territory. Because of these raids a greater part of the country was ravaged, and many persons had been killed. Basr the Commander of the forces of Muawiyah acted as a savage brute, and let loose a reign of terror. When Basr killed the young children of Ubaidullah, the Ali Governor of Yemen, and Ali came to know of this atrocity he invoked the curse of God on Basr. Back in Syria, Basr was struck with insanity. In the fits of madness that came to seize him he would shriek for his sword whereby he could kill the people. He was provided a wooden sword, and a stuffed animal skin on which to practice his skill. He wielded his sword with such mad fury that he died of exertion and the world was rid of him.
Apart from the ravaging of the countryside and the massacre of the people these raids led to the grave consequence of the demoralization of the people. The people lost the sense of values, and judgement. One day they took the oath of allegiance to one person and the other day they recanted and took the oath of allegiance to another person. Islam came to sit lightly on the people, and instead of fighting in the cause of God as enjoined by Islam, the people fought to seek worldly ends, a course repugnant to Islam.
After restoring the law and order in Yemen, the forces of Ali marched to Makkah and then to Madina. At both the places the story of Yemen was repeated. The Governors of Muawiyah deposed and the Governors of Ali were reinstated. The people who had taken the oath of allegiance to Muawiyah recanted and took the oath of allegiance to Ali again.
As a consequence of his raids, Muawiyah was not able to acquire any territory. Because of these raids a greater part of the country was ravaged, and many persons had been killed. Basr the Commander of the forces of Muawiyah acted as a savage brute, and let loose a reign of terror. When Basr killed the young children of Ubaidullah, the Ali Governor of Yemen, and Ali came to know of this atrocity he invoked the curse of God on Basr. Back in Syria, Basr was struck with insanity. In the fits of madness that came to seize him he would shriek for his sword whereby he could kill the people. He was provided a wooden sword, and a stuffed animal skin on which to practice his skill. He wielded his sword with such mad fury that he died of exertion and the world was rid of him.
Apart from the ravaging of the countryside and the massacre of the people these raids led to the grave consequence of the demoralization of the people. The people lost the sense of values, and judgement. One day they took the oath of allegiance to one person and the other day they recanted and took the oath of allegiance to another person. Islam came to sit lightly on the people, and instead of fighting in the cause of God as enjoined by Islam, the people fought to seek worldly ends, a course repugnant to Islam.
Caliphate of Ali before his assassination
Dark green is the territory of Ali
That set both the sides thinking. According to the accounts that have come down to us, it is not clear what happened exactly after the failure of the raids undertaken by the forces of Muawiyah in the territory held by Ali. According to some authorities it was Ali who made overtures for peace. According to other authorities, it was Muawiyah who took the initiative in starting negotiations for peace. According to Tabari, the Caliphate was partitioned, and it was agreed that Muawiyah was to be the Caliph for Egypt and Syria, while Ali was to be the Caliph for the rest of the territories under the control of the Muslims. The details of such agreement are not available. It may be recalled that prior to the Battle of Siffin, Muawiyah had proposed such partition but Ali had not agreed thereto because he held such partition to be repugnant to Islam. Since then things had turned out to go in favor of Muawiyah, and according to the decision of the umpires, howsoever obtained, Muawiyah had manipulated to secure the sovereignty of the whole of the Muslim world. Muawiyah was not the man to lose the advantage that he had once secured. It appears to me that there was no regular agreement about the partition of the caliphate. The agreement was merely about a truce on the status quo basis "hereunder Muawiyah held Syria and Egypt, and the rest of the Muslim territories were under the control of Ali. This view gets support from the fact that a few months after this agreement, Muawiyah declared himself to be the Caliph for the entire Muslim world. If there had been a previous agreement for the partition of the caliphate Muawiyah could not so soon go back upon such an agreement and declare himself to be the Caliph for all the Muslim lands. According to the political thought that obtained at the time, the caliphate was indivisible and there could not be more than one Caliph. That is why in spite of the decision of the umpires in his favor Muawiyah had refrained from declaring himself as the Caliph so far. After the failure of his raids he made a truce to gain time and gather more strength. With the lapse of time the position of Ali grew weaker and that of Muawiyah grew stronger. By mid 660 C.E. Muawiyah saw that the position of Ali had become sufficiently weak and his best supporters like Abdullah b Abbas had forsaken him. At that stage be felt himself to be strong enough to declare himself as the Caliph. This declaration stunned Ali. He could not remain quiet at such declaration, and yet he was not strong enough to undertake military action against the pretender. At this stage Ali was the most distressed man, who did not know what to do. He felt that God was putting him to test, and as a true Muslim he decides to resign himself to the will of God. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire such as Sicily, North Africa, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in Anatolia were also lost to outside empires.
Plan to kill
Ali defeated the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan, but that was not the end of the Kharijites. Because of the reverse met at Nahrawan they became all the more fanatic. Those who survived the disaster of Nahrawan burnt with the desire to seek vengeance for the blood of their comrades who had fallen in the Battle of Nahrawan.
After the Battle of Nahrawan, many Kharijites went to Makkah and sought sanctuary in the Kaaba. At Makkah they saw that the occupation of the city by the Syrians, the people repudiated their oath of allegiance to Ali, and transferred their allegiance to Muawiyah, later they saw that when the Syrians were driven away from Hijaz, the people of Makkah recanted from their oath of allegiance to Muawiyah, and took the oath of allegiance to Ali again. The Kharijites felt sore that in this way the sanctity of the process of oath taking was violated, and instead of establishing the kingdom of God on earth, the parties were trying to establish their own kingdoms. That was revolting to the way of thinking of the Kharijites. According to their view all those who were fighting for power had committed sin and had ceased to be Muslims. Fanatics as they were, they had the conviction that they would be serving the cause of God, if they murdered all such persons who were the principal characters in the struggle for power. They singled out three men for such murder: Ali, Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas.
The Kharijites in Makkah met at the Kaaba, and commissioned three young men to carry the plot of murder into effect. Abdur Rahman bin Maljam Al-Sarimi was chosen to assassinate Ali at Kufa. Barq bin Abdullah was entrusted with the task of murdering Muawiyah. Amr bin Bakr was assigned the task of putting an end to Amr bin Al-Aas as at Fustat. These young men whitened their swords with deadly poison. Thereafter they were required to proceed to the places assigned to them, and there wait till the seventeenth of the month of the Ramadan, when all the three assassins were to fall on their victims and kill them.
On the appointed date, Barq bin Abdullah attacked Muawiyah at Damascus while he was leading the Fajr prayers. The murderer was caught red handed. His feet and tongue were cut off in the first instance. He was thereafter subjected to other tortures, and ultimately put to death.
The wound that Muawiyah received was not fatal. His physicians offered him two alternative cures, one being cautery, and other was the drinking of a draught which would neutralize the poison, but would render him impotent. Muawiyah adopted the second alternative, and he was duly cured after a few days. The Kharijite plot to murder Muawiyah thus came to naught.
At Fustat, the Kharijite assassin Amr bin Bakr went to the main mosque on the appointed day to assassinate Amr bin Al-A'as. Amr bin Al-Aas was a child of fortune, and during his life luck favored him miraculously at critical moments. That day because of his illness due to colic pain, he did not attend the Fajr prayers in the mosque. Instead the prayers were led by his deputy Kharja bin Hudhafa. The assassin had not seen Amr previously, and he took Kharja to be Amr. Dashing on Kharja, the assassin slew him with the stroke of the poisoned sword. Amr was caught red handed, and produced before Amr. Amr asked the assassin about his motive for killing Kharja. Amr said that he had really intended to kill him (Amr), and Kharja had been killed because he took him for Amr. Under the orders of Amr, the Kharijite assassin was tortured and put to death. The Kharijite plot of murdering Amr bin Al-Aas thus came to naught.
After the Battle of Nahrawan, many Kharijites went to Makkah and sought sanctuary in the Kaaba. At Makkah they saw that the occupation of the city by the Syrians, the people repudiated their oath of allegiance to Ali, and transferred their allegiance to Muawiyah, later they saw that when the Syrians were driven away from Hijaz, the people of Makkah recanted from their oath of allegiance to Muawiyah, and took the oath of allegiance to Ali again. The Kharijites felt sore that in this way the sanctity of the process of oath taking was violated, and instead of establishing the kingdom of God on earth, the parties were trying to establish their own kingdoms. That was revolting to the way of thinking of the Kharijites. According to their view all those who were fighting for power had committed sin and had ceased to be Muslims. Fanatics as they were, they had the conviction that they would be serving the cause of God, if they murdered all such persons who were the principal characters in the struggle for power. They singled out three men for such murder: Ali, Muawiyah and Amr bin Al-Aas.
The Kharijites in Makkah met at the Kaaba, and commissioned three young men to carry the plot of murder into effect. Abdur Rahman bin Maljam Al-Sarimi was chosen to assassinate Ali at Kufa. Barq bin Abdullah was entrusted with the task of murdering Muawiyah. Amr bin Bakr was assigned the task of putting an end to Amr bin Al-Aas as at Fustat. These young men whitened their swords with deadly poison. Thereafter they were required to proceed to the places assigned to them, and there wait till the seventeenth of the month of the Ramadan, when all the three assassins were to fall on their victims and kill them.
On the appointed date, Barq bin Abdullah attacked Muawiyah at Damascus while he was leading the Fajr prayers. The murderer was caught red handed. His feet and tongue were cut off in the first instance. He was thereafter subjected to other tortures, and ultimately put to death.
The wound that Muawiyah received was not fatal. His physicians offered him two alternative cures, one being cautery, and other was the drinking of a draught which would neutralize the poison, but would render him impotent. Muawiyah adopted the second alternative, and he was duly cured after a few days. The Kharijite plot to murder Muawiyah thus came to naught.
At Fustat, the Kharijite assassin Amr bin Bakr went to the main mosque on the appointed day to assassinate Amr bin Al-A'as. Amr bin Al-Aas was a child of fortune, and during his life luck favored him miraculously at critical moments. That day because of his illness due to colic pain, he did not attend the Fajr prayers in the mosque. Instead the prayers were led by his deputy Kharja bin Hudhafa. The assassin had not seen Amr previously, and he took Kharja to be Amr. Dashing on Kharja, the assassin slew him with the stroke of the poisoned sword. Amr was caught red handed, and produced before Amr. Amr asked the assassin about his motive for killing Kharja. Amr said that he had really intended to kill him (Amr), and Kharja had been killed because he took him for Amr. Under the orders of Amr, the Kharijite assassin was tortured and put to death. The Kharijite plot of murdering Amr bin Al-Aas thus came to naught.
Assassination of Ali
Burial site of Ali Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq
Abdur Rahman bin Muljam Al-Sarimi, the designated assassin of Ali, reached Kufa well before the appointed date. Here he fell in love with a Kharijite girl Qataum by name. According to chronicles she was an outstanding beauty. She had a face as beautiful as the moon, and her flowing jet black tresses were most captivating. Her father and brother had been killed in the Battle of Nahrawan, and she was fired with the desire to avenge their death. She agreed to marry Abdur Rahman if he could present to her the head of Ali as her dower. As he was already committed to the assassination of Ali he readily accepted the condition laid down by his beloved. At the instance of Qataum, two more Kharijites joined with Abdur Rahman in the conspiracy to assassinate Ali. One of them was Werdan, who was related to Qataum. The other was Shaubib bin Bijrah who belonged to the tribe of Anjah.
On the Friday morning of the seventeenth day of the month of Ramadan, the three conspirators went to the main mosque of Kufa just before the break of dawn. Here they took up their position in the narrow passage leading to the prayer hall. A little later Ali came, the mosque when it was still dark and there was no one else in the mosque. When Ali stood to pray, Werdan struck at Ali, but missed his mark. Then Abdur Rahman struck Ali on the forehead with this poisoned sword which penetrated on the brain through the scar of an old wound. Thereafter the assassins fled from the mosque.
When the faithful assembled in the mosque for prayers they found Ali lying wounded on the prayer mat. A hunt for the assassins was made. Werdan resisted being taken captive and was killed. Abdur Rahman was apprehended and taken into custody. The third conspirator escaped from Kufa. Abdur Rahman confessed his guilt. He said that he had struck his blow at Ali in the name of God for he considered that in seeking power, Ali had sinned and was guilty of killing thousands of innocent people. Ali cursed Abdur Rahman for his misguided views. He, however, instructed his men that the assassin should be kept in custody and should not be subjected to any hardship. He observed that if he recovered from the wound, he would himself decide what punishment should be awarded to him. If he died the assassin was to lose his life. He was, however, to be killed in one stroke, and was neither to be mutilated nor made to suffer languishing death.
The wounds of Ali proved to be fatal. No antidote could be found to counter affect the poison that had penetrated into the body of Ali. The condition of Ali steadily deteriorated and he breathed his last on the 24th of January 661 C.E. corresponding to 21st Ramdan, 40 A.H. From God he came and to God he returned. The period of Ali's caliphate lasted for 4 years and 9 months. Ali instructed that his burial place should remain a secret. He had many enemies, and he feared lest his body might be subjected to some indignity. According to legend, the dead body of Ali was placed on a camel which was driven from Kufa. The camel stopped a few miles west of Kufa, and here the dead body of Ali was buried secretly. No tomb was raised, and nobody knew of the burial place except a few trusted persons. It is narrated that more than a hundred years later, the Abbasid Caliph, Harun-ur Rashid, went deer hunting outside Kufa, and the deer sought sanctuary at a place where the hounds would not pursue it. On inquiry as to why the place was a sanctuary, Harun-ur-Rashid was told that it was the burial place of Ali. Harun-ur Rashid ordered a mausoleum to be built on the spot. In due course, the town of Najaf grew around the mausoleum.
On the Friday morning of the seventeenth day of the month of Ramadan, the three conspirators went to the main mosque of Kufa just before the break of dawn. Here they took up their position in the narrow passage leading to the prayer hall. A little later Ali came, the mosque when it was still dark and there was no one else in the mosque. When Ali stood to pray, Werdan struck at Ali, but missed his mark. Then Abdur Rahman struck Ali on the forehead with this poisoned sword which penetrated on the brain through the scar of an old wound. Thereafter the assassins fled from the mosque.
When the faithful assembled in the mosque for prayers they found Ali lying wounded on the prayer mat. A hunt for the assassins was made. Werdan resisted being taken captive and was killed. Abdur Rahman was apprehended and taken into custody. The third conspirator escaped from Kufa. Abdur Rahman confessed his guilt. He said that he had struck his blow at Ali in the name of God for he considered that in seeking power, Ali had sinned and was guilty of killing thousands of innocent people. Ali cursed Abdur Rahman for his misguided views. He, however, instructed his men that the assassin should be kept in custody and should not be subjected to any hardship. He observed that if he recovered from the wound, he would himself decide what punishment should be awarded to him. If he died the assassin was to lose his life. He was, however, to be killed in one stroke, and was neither to be mutilated nor made to suffer languishing death.
The wounds of Ali proved to be fatal. No antidote could be found to counter affect the poison that had penetrated into the body of Ali. The condition of Ali steadily deteriorated and he breathed his last on the 24th of January 661 C.E. corresponding to 21st Ramdan, 40 A.H. From God he came and to God he returned. The period of Ali's caliphate lasted for 4 years and 9 months. Ali instructed that his burial place should remain a secret. He had many enemies, and he feared lest his body might be subjected to some indignity. According to legend, the dead body of Ali was placed on a camel which was driven from Kufa. The camel stopped a few miles west of Kufa, and here the dead body of Ali was buried secretly. No tomb was raised, and nobody knew of the burial place except a few trusted persons. It is narrated that more than a hundred years later, the Abbasid Caliph, Harun-ur Rashid, went deer hunting outside Kufa, and the deer sought sanctuary at a place where the hounds would not pursue it. On inquiry as to why the place was a sanctuary, Harun-ur-Rashid was told that it was the burial place of Ali. Harun-ur Rashid ordered a mausoleum to be built on the spot. In due course, the town of Najaf grew around the mausoleum.
Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib
His first wife was Fatima, the only daughter of Muhammad, during whose lifetime, he did not marry any other lady. By Fatima, he had three sons, Hasan, Hussain and Mohsin, who died in infancy; and two daughters, Zainab and Umm Kulsum. By his wife, Ummul Banin bint Hizam, Ali had four sons, viz. Abbas, Jafar, Abdullah and Uthman. By Layla bint Masud, he had Ubaidullah and Abu Bakr. By Asma bint Umyas, he had Yahya and Muhammad Asghar. By Umm Habiba bint Rabia, he had one son, Umar and a daughter, Ruqaiya. By Amama bint Abil Aas, he had a son, named Muhammad al-Awasat. By Khawla bint Jafar bin Qais al-Hanafiya, he had Muhammad Akbar, who was known as Muhammad ibn Hanafiya. By Umm Sa'id bint Urwa bin Masud, he had Ummul Hasan and Ramla. The number of wives at a time however did not exceed four. He had a few slave girls of whom Humia and Umm Shuaib bore him 12 daughters, Nafisa, Zainab, Ruqiya, Umm-ul-Karaam, Humaira, Umm Salma, Sughra, Khadija, Umm Hani, Umm Kulthum Jamana and Maimuna.